Euphenics

EUPHENICS (from Greek eu - well and phaino - I show), the doctrine of the favorable manifestation of hereditary predispositions—a necessary complement to eugenics (see), i.e., the doctrine of favorable hereditary predispositions. Modern doctrine of heredity clearly distinguishes two concepts: genes and phenes. Genes, hereditary predispositions, are contained in the gametes (egg and sperm); during fertilization, similar genes of both parents come together, and during the maturation process, they separate into different gametes without undergoing changes in the process. The external characteristics of the organism, or phenes, depend on certain genes and are the external, observable manifestation of these genes. Hidden from direct observation, genes possess great stability; we have not learned to change them at will and, at best, in some organisms we can, by means of X-rays and other similar factors, cause certain changes in genes—genovariations, or mutations—the nature of which we cannot foresee in advance. Therefore, practical measures in human and domestic animal eugenics, i.e., in changing their hereditary properties, are limited only to the artificial selection of genotypes valuable for reproduction and to the elimination from reproduction of those genotypes which we consider bad. The results of eugenic selection, however, prove to be very stable, and sometimes rapid: if in a herd of red and black cattle we leave only red individuals as producers, we will obtain a pure herd in which black cows will not appear in the future. In contrast to the genotype, the phenotype is much more accessible to direct influence in a certain direction, since the process of development of the fertilized egg genotype into an adult organism with certain phenotypic characteristics is determined by external, modifiable conditions. This dependence of the phenotype on external influences has been especially precisely clarified experimentally on the fruit fly—Drosophila. Among its numerous mutations there is one called Abnormal abdomen, distinguished by an abnormally deformed abdomen. One can obtain pure races of this mutation, all representatives of which will be carriers of this gene. Experiments show, however, that this gene does not always manifest in the phenotype, but only in those cases when larvae carrying this gene are raised on moist food. If, however, the culture is kept in conditions of insufficient humidity, then the manifestation of the gene is suppressed and genotypically abnormal flies appear phenotypically normal. There is another mutation, Droso-phila funebris, even more abnormal than Abnormal abdomen. In this mutation, with sharp manifestation, degeneration is observed in almost all organs: wings show various defects, sometimes completely rudimentary, eyes also reduce and may disappear, instead of 5 segments of legs sometimes only one remains. The experimenter, at his will, can either enhance the manifestation of the genotype and obtain many highly degenerative phenotypes, or, conversely, prevent manifestation and obtain from the same genotype externally normal individuals: in the first case he must keep the developing larvae at 25°, in the second at 15°. The latter technique in this case can be called euphenic. Thus from the same genotype we can obtain different phenotypes. Euphenics studies those methods by means of which we can, without changing the genotype, obtain the most valuable phenotypes for us of cultivated plants, domestic animals, and humans. Thus, in the field of plant cultivation, euphenic measures include mechanical soil treatment, artificial fertilization of the soil, artificial irrigation, pest control and other measures, by means of which the yield of a field sown with certain seeds can be increased by 100% or more. On the contrary, the eugenic measure in the field of agronomy is seed selection, selection of such a genotype that, under identical conditions, gives better fertility, resistance to weather changes, cold and drought, possesses hereditary immunity to certain diseases, etc. Modern agronomy uses both euphenic and eugenic methods, but recognizes that, while selected seeds pass on their valuable properties to a long series of subsequent generations, all euphenic measures must be repeated again for each generation, since their effect on the next generation is not transmitted through seeds in any stable way. The difference between eugenic and euphenic methods is very clearly manifested in practical animal husbandry. In a large part of the central agricultural district, the Yaroslav "breed" of cattle is raised. In a poor peasant farm, calves are raised poorly, suffer from cold and hunger, dairy cows are fed completely incorrectly, and as a result, a low-stunted peasant cow gives only about 700 liters of milk per year. But if the same heifer is raised in good conditions and fed properly, it will give 2,500 liters of milk. Such success is achieved purely by euphenic measures, since the genotype does not change in this case. However, we cannot further improve the milk yield of the cow in this way, although we know that there are cows that give much more milk than 2,500 liters per year (over 10,000 l). But these dairy cows differ from our Yaroslav cows already by their hereditary genotype. And among our Yaroslav cows there are different genotypes, since in the same herd under the same conditions some cows give more milk and others less. To improve a herd where it is no longer possible to achieve any results by euphenic measures, one can only by careful selection of the best producers, i.e., by eugenic means. As for man, E. plays an especially essential role in improving his physical properties and abilities. In man more than in any kind of animal and plant, the phenotype is determined by external conditions. We observe everywhere that raising a child in poor hygienic conditions and with poor nutrition leads to weakening of his, perhaps healthy and strong, genotype, weakens his natural ability to fight infections (tuberculosis). On the contrary, upbringing and life in good conditions increase his hereditary strength and resistance to a number of diseases. Hygiene, and especially social hygiene, physical culture, prevention, protection of motherhood and infancy, and all medicine in general are powerful methods of E. But the influence of the environment and external conditions on the development of human mental abilities is particularly significant. Man is born without a single conditioned reflex, and his stock of unconditioned innate reflexes is completely insufficient for maintaining his existence, since in this respect man is endowed by nature poorer than other species of animals, and especially insects, possessing complex innate instincts that fully regulate all their behavior. Moreover, man is a social organism, whose existence apparently is impossible outside a social environment. Only in an invented and poorly invented novel could the child Tarzan grow up and even learn a language without seeing a single human being. In reality, it is obvious that in the human genotype are laid only the abilities for spoken language, while speech itself, as well as the entire system of conditioned reflexes, is given by the external social environment with the great wealth of experience accumulated by humanity and transmitted by tradition from generation to generation. Therefore, the entire system of upbringing and education belongs to the field of E. In view of these peculiarities of man, in many cases it is very difficult, behind the external, easily observable phenotype, to determine his natural abilities—genotype. If a person was raised in good hygienic conditions and had the opportunity to make use of good upbringing and education, but nevertheless remained both weak and underdeveloped, then we with sufficient confidence conclude about his physical and mental inadequacy. But such a conclusion cannot be made with respect to a person who developed in unfavorable conditions: a weak worker, poisoned by lead from childhood, may in reality be endowed by nature with good health and physical strength, which he can pass on to his children, if they are raised in hygienic conditions. A shepherd, playing his own compositions on a pipe, may turn out to be more gifted a musician than some untalented pianist who was taught music from childhood. In a perfect social system, all children should be placed in good hygienic conditions ensuring their normal physical development; children with some insufficiency of the physical genotype can be to a large extent corrected by appropriate care. Congenital deficiencies of temperament can be corrected by appropriate upbringing and in some cases by treatment. We now have at our disposal many methods to determine the giftedness of a child in various respects.

Euphenics requires that each child be placed in such conditions of upbringing and education that his special hereditary abilities would find their most complete and most valuable expression in his phenotype. Lit.—see lit. to art. Eugenics.