Music

Music, the art of organizing sounds. Perception of music and its effects. In the perception of music, the following moments can be noted, each of which can exist to a certain degree independently. 1) General organic shock caused by the dynamic aspect, sharp contrasts, and the overall intensity of the effect. This moment is not purely auditory here tactile sensations and organic changes in breathing, heartbeat also participate. French authors Bourgues and Denereaz call the synesthetic effect of music the coarse but deep shocks in contrast to kinesia - the more subtle and differentiated motor response. Synesthetic perception of music is generally accessible to all people and does not require special musical abilities. It is found even in the deaf. German researchers Katz and Revesz established that the so-called vibratory sense makes the enjoyment of music accessible to the deaf. At the same time, the strong air vibrations produced by music directly affect the vasomotor system of the body (in European music, it is precisely the large orchestra, massive organ sounds that act in this way).- 2) Auditory perception of sound relationships, understanding of the objective and formal properties of music (fast, slow, high, low). This type of perception is mainly directed at the motor-sound aspect. It is characteristic of people professionally engaged in music and requires special abilities. In this case, perception must be directed at the musical whole, and the functional significance of sounds must be realized (more important, central sounds, stable and unstable sounds). Otherwise, the perception will not be properly musical. Doriac (Bairas) as early as 1905 emphasized the importance of perceiving musical relationships and referred to cases of amusia, when a listener is unable to distinguish melodies while perceiving individual sounds well.- At present, the so-called psychology of form (Gestaltpsychologie) has acquired great importance. The perception of the whole determines the perception of elements, which acquire meaning depending on this whole. Thus, for example, the size of an interval for perception and reproduction depends on the character and direction of the melody in which the interval is included [experimental works by Abraham, Belyaeva-Ekzemplyarskaya and Yavorsky]. Connected with this are also studies of auditory set to a particular mode, melodic or rhythmic figure, etc.-3) Understanding the expressed content. The most accessible for music is the transmission of the emotional and motor aspect. Tension-release is considered an inalienable specific content of music. Regarding the transmission of other contents (images, pictures, ideas), there is an irreconcilable dispute between formalists and supporters of representational music. Formalists (the most prominent representative Hanslick; 19th century) understand music as an abstract, isolated art (for them, representational and sound-imitating music is a lower form of music); opposite theories assert that music can express extramusical contents. Modern Soviet musicology, and especially musical pedagogy, sharply negative toward formalism in music, toward understanding it as an abstract art, and find an explanation for the uniqueness of musical works in their class conditioning. Connected with this are the intense searches for music that is most class-related to the proletariat. The listener's reaction to music can take extremely diverse forms, starting from the strongest physiological shock (which music produces, for example, on primitive peoples in its magical and therapeutic application*) and ending with dispassionate intellectual judgment, as is the case, for example, with the theoretic-critic. Typically, the reaction to music in the average listener unfolds in the following ways: 1) a general emotional impulse (tension-release, excitement-calming, pleasure-displeasure) leads to 2) experiencing a specific emotion (sadness, fear) and 3) to the motor aspect of the emotion, 4) to the creation of images and representations (in the case of sound-imitating music, images bypass intermediate stages and arise directly).-Aftereffect of music has two characteristic forms: motor infection, emotional excitement on the one hand and relief from emotions, calming, catharsis, understood simply physiologically (Belyaeva-Ekzemplyarskaya). The therapeutic effects of music can be based on these two forms.-In the field of individual differences, many observations have been accumulated regarding colored hearing. Colored hearing denotes the fact that in some people the perception or representation of music or sounds is more or less constantly associated with visual images. Probably connected with this, in a number of musicians we can find the creation of parallel to music 'color' scores (for example, Laszlo, Scriabin).-Based on works on the musical development of the child, the following facts deserve to be noted: early development of rhythmic feeling, predominance of the sensorimotor aspect from 6 to 10 years, later - the appearance of differentiation of harmonies and gradual development of understanding of expressive content. The social significance of music is based 1) on its emotionally and motor-infectious character; this infection in music is more direct than in other arts; 2) on the possibility of simultaneous mass perception and performance of music; 3) on the organizing significance of the rhythmic aspect. The first moment is manifested in the exciting effect of military music, victory songs, ritual music. In every era, one can find such emotionally unifying musical phenomena. The organizing role of music is important for uniting collective movements (for the simultaneity of efforts of many participants - work songs) and for facilitating movements through their rhythmicization (ease of walking to music). The latter circumstances can have great production significance. Musical giftedness. Determination of the abilities needed for musical activities has long been carried out in pedagogical practice. It becomes scientific with the introduction of certain testing methods and precise measures taken as a unit. For the most part, tests of musical giftedness are calculated on individual abilities. Such are relative pitch - the ability to distinguish intervals; absolute pitch - the ability to recognize or reproduce the pitch of a single sound, for example, do, do-diez; musical memory - the ability of recognition and reproduction; rhythmic feeling, etc. Along with this, there is a tendency to standardize tests, to search for standard measurements [Seashore and his school, works of GIMNa]. Another direction considers it important not the atomistic determination by individual elements, but the establishment of the ability to perceive the musical whole, for example, a melody (Brehmer). Some musician-pedagogues consider the most essential understanding of music as a means of expression, and knowledge of the means from this point of view is unimportant (Jacoby). Connected with this is the assertion about the universal accessibility of music and the slogan 'there are no unmusical people'. So-called 'unmusicalness' is declared a result of psychological trauma, delay: the unmusical are afraid, not unable. Among the methods for establishing the most characteristic properties of musicality and their connection with other manifestations of personality, statistical methods of correlation (Miller, works of GIMNa) occupy an important place. Musical productive activity can be divided into two groups: compositional and performing. Data on musical creativity are found 1) in that part of music theory which is called composition theory; 2) in general psychological studies on the psychology of creativity; 3) in special studies on the creativity of individual composers, in biographical and historical information. It is customary to distinguish in compositional creativity the spontaneous activity of fantasy and the conscious critical work. Depending on the predominance of one or another moment, types of musical creativity are outlined. Types of composers are established also in another way: for some the transmission of a specific content is important (for example, Glinka, Mussorgsky), for others - the artistic design of the material (for example, Taneyev).-Attempts are made to build a psychophysical type of musician; data on this matter are also available in works on professional diseases of musicians. In the field of musical performance, psycho-technical studies begin to acquire importance. On the one hand - this is the striving for the rationalization of certain forms of movement (cyclographic study of the movements of a pianist, registration and regulation of breathing processes). On the other hand, the question arises of professional selection, professional counseling and the compilation of a professionalogram for musicians of different specialties.

S. Belyaeva-Ekzompiyarskaya. The therapeutic influence of Music, particularly on the nervo-psychic sphere, as an empirical fact, has been known since the most ancient times. Not without reason is Aesculapius considered the son of Apollo. Mentions of the therapeutic effect of Music are found in the Bible (in the Psalms of David, the sayings of Solomon, etc.). The Pythagoreans attempted to treat mental disorders with music; they regarded these disorders as ethical, and the effect of Music as also ethical. By means of prolonged musical stimuli, they brought the pathological affect to its extreme and caused a state that can be compared to a state of discharge—'catharsis'. Not all instruments and not every melody had such an effect; playing the flute and singing were particularly successful. Pythagoras mentions a youth whom he saved in this way from the 'madness' threatening him. Empedocles prevented suicide in the same way, etc. At present, attempts are being made to establish an experimental-physiological basis for these empirical facts. We already have a large number of works that attempt to clarify the physiological influence of musical stimuli. This influence affects the circulation, respiration, and the nervous system (Dogel). These stimuli have an enhancing effect on the pulse and respiration, and this effect is the more pronounced the more lively the rhythm; the sharpest reactions are produced by major and dissonant intervals. Major increases blood pressure. With prolonged exposure to musical stimuli, a shortening of the pulse wave is observed, which Mentz associates with the factor of fatigue; these observations concern 22,000 pulse curves. A series of studies on trepanned brains has shown that musical stimuli increase the flow of blood waves to the brain (Patrizi). According to Tarkhanov's data, Music increases gas exchange and enhances the activity of the skin (measured by a galvanometer). The stimulating influence of Music on muscle work has been known for a long time. Workers in certain professions have their own songs, which they use as stimulants during work; the Russian people are particularly rich in such songs (Bucher). Using Mosso's ergograph, Tarkhanov and especially Fere showed that major and consonant intervals increase muscle strength, eliminate fatigue, while minor and dissonant intervals have the opposite effect; diverse rhythms have a more pronounced effect than uniform ones (Fere, Guibier). By means of pneumographic curves, Roemer attempts to distinguish subjects on whom Music has a purely emotional effect from those who perceive music 'intellectually'. All these experimental works have contributed to a significant revival of interest in the questions of 'melotherapy', which finds very wide and diverse application. Thus, in America, Germany, England, France, Sweden, music is sometimes used for patients undergoing surgery. At the beginning of anesthesia, tubes from phonographs are inserted into the ears of these patients; in this way, it is supposedly possible to shorten the phase of excitement, reduce the tendency to vomit, and make the general condition after anesthesia more satisfactory. Patients who had previously been—

Music patients who do not respond to ordinary anesthesia show a clear preference for 'musical anesthesia.' Doctors Burdick in America and Hubinette in Sweden, being singers, use this art to distract the patient's attention from the unpleasant preoperative manipulations that affect the psyche. As for the application of M. in neuropsychiatric diseases, although at present we have its wide application (especially in America, where large psychiatric hospitals have special orchestras, chamber ensembles, etc.), the question has still not been systematically worked out, there are not sufficiently clear indications for and contraindications to 'melotherapy,' and the question of the program of such concerts, the 'dosage' of music, has not been sufficiently worked out, it has not been clarified in which cases passive perception should be preferred, and in which cases it is more advisable for the patient's active participation (organizing a chorus, etc.). The general conclusion that can be drawn from the available data is that melotherapy is indicated primarily for states of depression and mild excitement. In depression, major key M. has a stimulating effect. In severe depressions, the opposite effect may occur: intensification of melancholy, appearance of a state of fear, convulsions, trembling, attacks of weeping (Billroth). M. has no beneficial effect on delusional ideas; moreover, it itself can become a source of further delusion formation. M. finds wide application in various psychoneuroses, psychopathies, etc. Hensge speaks of 'musical psychoanalysis': through the action of music, it is possible to extract complex formations from the subconscious. In recent times, when greater importance has been attached to psychotherapy even in such predominantly endogenous diseases as schizophrenia, the question of melotherapy in this disease has acquired special relevance. In particular, the rhythmic component of M. cannot but have an influence on catatonics. Part of schizophrenics under the influence of M. becomes more sociable, it is possible to establish contact with them by this means. The application of M. is also determined by the circumstance that correct response to musical irritants is observed even in such patients who have a sharp decrease in intelligence and a marked affective bluntness. It is known with what attention oligophrenics, even idiots, listen to music on the radio, while other irritants do not affect them. Regarding the influence of M. on the neuropsychic sphere, it should be noted that active engagement with M. has a beneficial effect on those musicians who suffer from mental instability, neurasthenia, psychopathy, etc. Breaks in M. studies usually aggravate these conditions. The so-called professional diseases of musicians (in particular phobias, fear of performances, etc.) should be considered as diseases in sick musicians, and not as a specific professional hazard. As for the question of how mental disorders affect musical activity, the following observations exist. In manic patients, jumps of musical ideas are noted; in schizophrenics-musical perseverations. Rentsch, Loewenfeld described musical obsessive ideas. In depressive patients, very disturbing, cheerful, vulgar obsessive melodies appear. Such obsessive ideas are known to occur also in healthy people, especially in musicians. Sometimes such obsessive ideas are connected with obsessive thoughts: to sing, whistle a melody. Often such states are combined with other obsessive ideas, most often with phobias. Repond studied the reproductive musical activity in mentally ill patients and notes in the playing of schizophrenics the absence of dynamic effects, emotional expressiveness, rhythmicity. Sereysky observed a schizophrenic who performed Beethoven's sonata quite satisfactorily from a technical point of view, but played it in reverse order, i.e., first the third, then the second, and finally the first part. The dissociation between the preservation of musical abilities and a deep violation of intelligence makes it necessary to distinguish between musical and general intelligence. Ingegnieros distinguishes 'musical idiocy' with a complete absence of musical perceptions and 'musical imbecility,' when the subject hears but remains affectively indifferent. An example of musical idiocy can be such prominent people as Victor Hugo, Théophile Gautier; an example of musical imbecility-Goethe, Zola, Napoleon. Würtzen cites the case of a doctor who could not distinguish fast from slow tempo, a cheerful from a sad melody. That musical abilities can and must be separated from other abilities follows from cases of neurological disorders (see Amusia), which have their own localization. The brain of a musician is distinguished by a special development of the temporal gyrus, mainly on the left side (gyrus supramarginalis of the transverse gyrus; Auerbach). According to Henschen, the auditory center is separated from the verbal center; this is confirmed by a large clinical material: there are cases of general deafness without musical deafness and cases of musical deafness (amusia) without verbal. In terms of localization, these centers are located: verbal-in the posterior part of T_g-T_a (the former Wernicke center), musical-in the anterior part of T_g. The separate existence of these centers is confirmed ontogenetically and phylogenetically. Henschen's doctrine has found powerful reinforcement in cytoarchitectonics (Vogt). If, according to Wernicke, only one center is located in the temporal lobe, then according to cytoarchitectonic data there are at least five there. Henschen attempts to establish the union of individual centers for their joint action; he introduces the concept of a 'musical union'; this is an independent mechanism; centers included in such a 'union' are divided into receptor (two types: for acoustic-tonal perception and optical-reading notes) and motor (also 2 types: for singing and playing an instrument). Research on 100 brains leads Henschen to the conclusion that acoustic-tonal perception is localized in the left T_g; reading notes-in the sulcus infraparietalis, i.e., in front of the angular gyrus, where the center for reading in general is located; singing-in front of the center for language, i.e., in front of the praecentral gyrus; playing an instrument-in the third frontal gyrus on the right. The development of centers determining musical talent is associated to a large extent with genetic peculiarities. A classic example of the inheritance of musical talent is the Bach family, in which there were 90 musicians. However, there is no doubt that the environment plays no less a significant role, in particular in those cases when the profession is passed from parents to offspring. Hurst proves that musicality is a recessive trait. Hecker and Ziehen, by means of the questionnaire method, collected data on 5,000 people and come to the following conclusions: 1) if both parents are musical, then most children are also musical; 2) if both parents are not musical, then most children are not musical; 3) if one parent is musical and the second is not, then the influence of the musical parent predominates in heredity; 4) women themselves rarely exhibit great musicality, but are transmitters of musical heredity, which they mostly pass on to male children. The question of the type of inheritance of musical talent must be considered far from clarified. Musical talent does not always correlate with general intellectual talent; it is known that mongoloids have good musicality. Is there a correlation between musical talent and constitutional-somatic peculiarities? This question naturally arose in connection with Kretschmer's doctrine. The general impression is that among performer musicians the leptosomatic type predominates (Singer); let us point to the examples of outstanding conductors, for example Nikisch, Klemperer. For creative musicians, the pachydermic type is more characteristic; for example Beethoven, Brahms, Wagner. The athletic type is very rare among creative musicians (for example Handel), but among performers it is found almost only in singers (for example Chaliapin). Finally, it is appropriate to note the influence of the endocrine system. Hypogenitalics, mongoloids have good musicality (Sereysky). The relationships here are very complex; in any case, for now one can only assume that the sex glands do not have a decisive role in the development of musical talent. This perhaps can explain that musical prodigies appear at a very early age; thus, Brahms at the age of 1, when he could not yet speak, accurately sang melodies; Mozart at 5 was a finished musician. Bernstein and Rohlin note radiographically in 90% of all adult musicians examined the preservation of transverse striation in the diaphyseal-epiphyseal zone, which, in their opinion, indicates subgenitalism.

m. Jewish.