Food Products

FOOD PRODUCTS, or foodstuffs, represent the numerous objects that humans consume as food. In the overwhelming majority of cases, they consist of several so-called food substances; the latter include proteins, fats, carbohydrates, mineral salts, water, as well as vitamins; these general names unite in essence various compounds that nevertheless have some characteristic common physical, chemical, and physiological properties; for example, carbohydrates include bodies very close in chemical composition, such as starch and cellulose, while their nutritional value differs sharply: cellulose is almost not digested by humans, while starch is digested almost 100%. Such proteins as milk albumin, casein, meat proteins and some others are complete proteins, while other proteins are incomplete; furthermore, plant proteins are generally digested by humans to a lesser degree than animal proteins; it is also known that the physiological properties of different vitamins vary greatly, etc. Food products in most cases represent natural combinations of food substances and in a minority they consist of any one (mainly) nutrient substance. The composition and properties of F. p. are determined not only by the aforementioned food substances contained in them, but also by other compounds, which in various qualitative and quantitative combinations characterize different F. p.; thus, organic acids, alcohols, aldehydes, tannins, enzymes, sterols, alkaloids, essential oils, coloring substances and other compounds may be present in food products. Depending on their origin, food products of animal and plant origin are distinguished. Depending on their purpose, food products can be divided into proper food products, flavoring substances, and beverages. The first serve the purpose of satiety and replenishing the material losses of the human body as a result of its life activities. The second, consumed in relatively very small quantities, cannot serve as the main material for replenishing the body's energy expenditures; they, by causing pleasant sensations through the nervous system, make food more appetizing, thereby enhancing its beneficial effect. Beverages, excluding alcoholic beverages, serve primarily to quench thirst. The said division of food products, both by origin and by purpose, is of course schematic: a number of food products can be placed in an intermediate position, for example, chocolate, which simultaneously possesses valuable properties of a flavoring substance and a significant energy reserve due to its fat and sugar content; milk is one of the basic food products and possesses the most valuable nutritional properties; but milk at the same time, due to its high water content (87-88%), can quench thirst. Food products, depending on their origin and the raw materials from which they are made, are conventionally divided into the following groups: meat products (see Meat), fish products (see Fish), dairy products (see Milk), eggs of domestic poultry - chickens, ducks, geese, fat products (see Fats, Margarine, Oil), bread products (see Flour, Bread), fruits (see), vegetables (see), mushrooms (see'), sweet substances - cane and beet sugar (sucrose), honey, molasses, molasses or starch sugar (glucose), beverages, flavoring substances (see Table Salt, Spices). Food products also include so-called nutritional preparations - unusual foodstuffs used in various diseases with a specific therapeutic purpose or to replace ordinary food products when the latter cannot be tolerated by the sick body (nutrient enemas, concentrated food, etc.). These special food products should, according to their purpose, give the body in a very digestible form in concentrated form those food substances that are considered beneficial in a particular disease or represent food products with their food components removed that could harm the body. They are intended not for feeding the entire population, but only for people in a special condition, for example, the sick, convalescing, the weak, pregnant women, etc. According to chemical composition and purpose, protein, carbohydrate, fat and mixed nutritional preparations are distinguished. The first include, for example, meat protein (peptones of Witte, Kos'a, Liebieg'a and others; somatose and others), meat powder (tropone, sozone and others), vegetable protein (aleurinate, mutase, roborate and others), milk protein (eikazine, plasmon, nutrose, sanatogen and others), egg protein (nutritive substances of Heyden's, protogen), glutone (gelatin, converted by the action of acids and high temperature into a powder, easily soluble in water). Carbohydrate preparations include, for example, fine types of flour that are digested more easily than ordinary varieties, made from both grains and legumes (oat, rice, barley, lentil, arrrut, etc.) and used mainly in the form of easily digestible soups; dextrinized types of flour, usually used in infancy, in which the saccharifying action of saliva is very weak (flour of Nestle, Kufeke, Mellin and many others); malt extracts - syrup-like extracts from malted barley with a content of approximately 40-50% sugar (mainly maltose), about 10% starch and dextrin solution, and 5-6% proteins; fruit juices (e.g., grape). Relatively very few fat preparations have been proposed; they mainly aimed to try to replace fish oil with more palatable preparations (effervescent fish oil, emulsion of Scott's, fucol, sadol, etc.), however these attempts were not successful. Lecithin preparations have much wider distribution; they are prepared from egg yolk, contain phosphorus and fats. These preparations are mixtures of lecithin with foodstuffs, for example with malt (ovomaltine, biomalt), with milk (biocytin), or with protein-rich nutritional preparations, such as fitin (plant seeds). Mixed nutritional preparations, i.e., containing a mixture of several or all food substances, count a huge number of names, in the overwhelming majority represent preparations intended for feeding infants and are known under the collective name baby flour (see). The sanitary-hygienic evaluation of food products is carried out on the basis of accounting for various factors, accidental or constant, characteristic of a given product. These factors can be conditionally divided into two groups, namely - factors characterizing the value of the product mainly from the point of view of normal nutritional physiology; these include: the caloric value of the product - total and digestible (gross and net), the percentage content of the main food substances (proteins, fats, carbohydrates, mineral salts and water), the digestibility of individual food substances contained in the product (proteins, fats, carbohydrates), the composition and properties of the food substances themselves, for example types of proteins and their completeness (amino acid composition), types of carbohydrates (soluble, insoluble, cellulose content), the composition of the fat of this product and its melting point, the nature and amount of lipoids (lecithins, sterols, etc.), the mineral composition (content of calcium, phosphorus, iodine, iron and other elements) and the ratio between themselves of mineral parts of acid and alkaline nature; the qualitative and quantitative content of vitamins; this group of factors should also include the so-called organoleptic properties of food products (taste, smell, color, consistency and appearance), which cause in the consumer, in relation to a normal product, attraction and appetite and thereby contribute to better digestion. The other group consists of factors characterizing the product mainly from a sanitary point of view, i.e., indicating whether the product meets existing sanitary requirements or not. These include factors indicating the harmfulness of the product, such as: accidental or malicious impurities in the form of salts of heavy metals (lead, zinc, tin, copper, arsenic, etc.), harmful coloring and flavoring substances, contamination of the product with pathogenic microorganisms (typhoid, paratyphoid, tuberculosis, etc.), the presence of bacterial toxins (botulinus, toxins of bacteria causing meat poisoning, tyrotoxin, etc.), organic poisonous substances (alkaloids, etc.), impurity of harmful plant products (ergot, smut, poisonous mushrooms, etc.); factors that, although not poisonous and strongly acting, can reduce the value of the product, namely - foreign impurities (completely unacceptable or exceeding existing norms), such as clay, sand, small particles of dirt and foreign bodies, etc.; further come factors establishing the freshness or spoilage of the product, i.e., determining the signs of decomposition of food products, which appear as a result of long-term or improper storage of food products; signs of decomposition are determined by methods of organoleptic or laboratory research; the latter are based on qualitative or, more often, quantitative determination of decomposition products, characteristic and standardized for food products.

(determination of acidity in many plant, dairy, and fat products; of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide in meat and fish products, etc.); factors indicating so-called falsification, i.e., the deceptive sale of a product that does not correspond in its composition and properties to the name under which it is sold (see below); for the sanitary assessment of food products, the determination of the normal constituent parts of the product (their quantity), as well as the organoleptic properties, is also of great importance, for the purpose of establishing the product's grade and its correspondence to the selling price; e.g., determination of the fat content and acidity of sour cream, or determination of the ash content in flour to establish its grade, etc. The listed factors giving a sanitary characterization of food products are indicated as factors that can usually be determined with greater or lesser precision in the laboratory. However, the determination and guarantee of the sanitary safety of food products, whether as individual items or as a whole batch, is not exhausted by these factors that can be discovered upon examination of the product itself; there may be cases of unsanitary conditions of food products that, due to imperfections in existing analytical methods or sampling techniques, may remain undetected. Therefore, in sanitary-food practice, the study of sanitary conditions related to all stages of the product's progression from the very beginning of its production to its receipt by the consumer, and the organization of corresponding preventive measures, is a very important aid for the comprehensive assessment of food products. The comparative characterization of different groups of food products according to their main nutritional properties can be briefly expressed as follows: food products containing the least amount of water and correspondingly larger amounts of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats have the highest caloric value; animal fats (lard, clarified butter, fish oils, etc.) and vegetable oils, which contain almost no water and other food substances, have the highest caloric value. Many vegetables (cabbage, cucumbers, etc.), which contain negligible amounts of fat and very much water, have the lowest caloric value. In terms of digestibility, food products of animal origin generally have significant advantages over food products of plant origin; the main reason for this is cellulose, a carbohydrate that is almost indigestible by humans and characteristic of the plant world; plant food products that contain little or no cellulose are exceptions, such as plant fats, potato or wheat starch, plant milk (almond, etc.), etc. The digestibility of plant food products (all other things being equal) can generally be considered inversely proportional to the cellulose content; however, the lower digestibility is explained not only by the fact that cellulose itself is not digested, but also by the following: 1) cellulose, without dissolving or being digested itself, hinders the free access of digestive juices and enzymes to the proteins and fats contained in plant cells, reducing their percentage of digestibility; 2) cellulose causes increased peristalsis of the intestines through their mechanical irritation, accelerating the passage of food mass through the digestive tract, thereby¹ reducing the duration of digestive action and correspondingly reducing the digestibility of all ingested food. Proteins in food products are not equivalent; this depends on the fact that not all of them _r contain the necessary amino acids for nutrition; in this sense, complete proteins are those found in meat and milk; fish protein should apparently be considered somewhat less valuable; proteins of plant products are generally considered incomplete compared to those mentioned above; among the latter, potato and rice proteins rank highest. The mineral composition of food products, compared with other constituent parts (food substances) of products, has not yet been studied sufficiently; the same is true with the study of the physiological significance of mineral salts (see Mineral Nutrition) for the body. In general, it should be noted that potassium (K) and phosphorus (P) are contained in the largest amounts in food products. Sodium is apparently contained in larger amounts in animal food products (especially in eggs) than in plant products; therefore, in the latter, the amount of potassium particularly predominates over sodium. Calcium (Ca), so necessary for bone growth, is found in relatively large amounts in milk (and in spinach). In meat, eggs, wheat flour, rye flour, buckwheat flour, and peas, phosphorus (P) is present in larger amounts than in other food products. For the body, it is apparently not only the absolute amounts of individual inorganic elements that matter, but also the ratio of many of them to each other in the food consumed by humans; the main basis for the latter is obviously the concentration of hydrogen ions in the body (pH = 7.35), some abnormal shifts of which can apparently occur from absorbed mineral salts if acidic or alkaline elements sharply and constantly predominate in them. Since the ratio of inorganic elements in most food products does not give a neutral point, and some deviate strongly from it, from the point of view of mineral exchange, mixed nutrition is absolutely necessary, as is also scientifically justified in other respects. An excess of acidic elements is observed in such products as corn, oats, wheat, rice (and flour from them), meat, fish, eggs, and especially egg yolk. An excess of alkaline elements is observed in milk, apples, cabbage, peas, potatoes, beets, and especially in beans, raisins, turnips, plums (according to Sherman). Thus, among animal products, only milk (and presumably dairy products, such as cheeses, cream, etc.) apparently has a slight excess of alkaline elements. By-products include inedible, waste parts of food products, which include, for example, tendons, bones, skin, inedible offal (intestines, etc.), husks and shells of plant products, etc. The amount of by-products should be taken into account in order to determine the true content of food substances in the commercial, market weight of food products. In general, many food products of animal origin have the highest percentage of by-products; this is explained by the fact that they include extremely important and numerous types of fish and meat that contain significant amounts of bones, inedible offal, etc.; such products as brains, lard, sausages, etc., are practically considered to have no by-products. Among the most common plant products, potatoes (25%) and cucumbers (40%) have a relatively large amount of by-products due to imperfections in the cleaning method, by which a significant part of the edible part is also removed. Such plant products as flour, bread, pasta, nut kernels, practically have no by-products. (Vitamin content in food products-see Vitamins.) In the overall assessment of food products, their ability to be preserved for a long time and maintain their normal nutritional properties, and conversely, their rapid change and spoilage, which has enormous economic and social-hygienic significance, should also be taken into account; from this point of view, food products are traditionally divided into perishable and non-perishable products. Physiologically most favorable and valuable food products belong precisely to the perishable products; it is sufficient to note that they include fresh meat, fish, eggs, milk, vegetables, fruits, berries, butter, and many others. Examples of non-perishable products include grain, groats, flour, beans, peas, various canned goods, etc., capable of being preserved under normal conditions for a long time (up to 1 year or more). To give perishable food products stability against external factors (dampness, temperature, microorganisms and their enzymes, air), fresh food products can be subjected to various types of processing, preservation (see). Canned products obtained by thickening, drying, smoking, salting, pickling, sterilizing, and other methods, compared with the original products from which they are prepared, in the vast majority of cases somewhat lose their nutritional properties; the latter may be caused by a decrease in the amount of vitamins under the influence of, for example, high temperatures (sterilization), oxidation processes (the effect of atmospheric oxygen on dried, dried products), decomposition and rancidity of fats in dried, dried, and smoked fatty products (fish, sausages), lower digestibility and comparative roughness of dried, dried, smoked, and partly salted products, loss of some nutrients in salted and pickled food products by their extraction with brines and vinegar, the transition of metals (tin, etc.) into the contents of tin cans, etc. In terms of taste properties, many canned products have advantages over the original products (e.g., pickles, smoked products).

The spoilage of food products essentially represents the spoilage of the organic food substances (proteins, fats, and carbohydrates) that make up their composition; the processes of spoilage are accompanied by the accumulation in the product of various breakdown products, which are most easily detected by the appearance of specific unpleasant organoleptic changes in the spoiled product; these breakdown products in many cases can be detected directly or indirectly by laboratory research methods. Proteins, fats, and carbohydrates each have more or less characteristic decomposition products; therefore, the predominant content of these food substances in the product gives the decomposition a more or less specific character; for example, the spoilage of meat and fish products with predominant protein content is accompanied by putrefaction—a phenomenon characteristic specifically of proteins; the spoilage of fat products (butter, etc.) is accompanied by rancidity and oxidation phenomena, characteristic of fats; the decomposition of flour, starch, and sugar is accompanied by the hydrolysis of polysaccharides and disaccharides, characteristic specifically of carbohydrates; in this process, insoluble starch turns into soluble carbohydrates (dextrins, maltose, glucose), and the disaccharide sucrose, turning into inverted sugar (hexoses), acquires the property of reducing, for example, Fehling's reagent. Mixed products (for example, cooked sausage made with starch and containing sufficient fat) can, of course, to a significant degree exhibit all the mentioned types of decomposition. However, the decomposition of food products is determined not only by the content of one or another food substances, but also by other conditions, which should include, for example, the salt composition (content of saltpeter, NaCl, etc.), content of organic acids (reaction of the medium), accidental contamination by one or another group of microorganisms, storage conditions (access to air, light), etc.; each of these factors can apparently stimulate or suppress the growth of various groups of microorganisms capable of causing various changes in food products. Conditions for transporting perishable products—see Perishable goods. The production, packaging, storage, transportation, and finally the distribution of food products, i.e., the entire path of food products up to the consumer, for the purpose of protecting public health and material interests, is subject to control by state and public organizations. In the USSR, actual control is carried out by representatives of various organizations, namely: NKZdr. (sanitary authorities of the republic), NKSnaba (special inspections, such as dairy-butter, bread, etc.), administrative departments of soviets (militia), NKZema (veterinary and other authorities), between which functions (control and instructional), characteristic of each, are divided (see Food legislation). To ensure the supply of the population with high-quality food products, the USSR has and develops corresponding official requirements for food products, among which the most perfect are the so-called all-union standards for food products (see OST), which specify certain food products, quality and composition according to existing varieties of the given product, rules for packaging and labeling, as well as rules for sampling and research methods. In addition to OSTs, which also take into account sanitary requirements (all OSTs for food products are coordinated with NKZdr.), there also exist various sanitary-hygienic requirements of a general and special nature in the form of circulars, orders, resolutions of NKZdr. and its Scientific Medical Council, as well as local sanitary authorities in the form of soviets (see Food legislation). In the previously existing political-economic conditions in our country (as in those currently existing outside the USSR), the main stimulus for supplying the population with products was essentially production and trade for material, monetary profit. In pursuit of profit, producers and traders often resorted to deception and sought to sell under a certain name a product that was less valuable and did not correspond in composition and properties to the name given to it. Such acts are known by the term 'food product adulteration'. According to Khlopin (1913), 'food product adulteration is developing colossally rapidly everywhere and covers both necessities of life and flavoring substances'. The primary reason for the widespread development of sanitary-food legislation and control both in Russia and abroad was precisely adulteration. Under the conditions of the USSR with the almost universal displacement of private trade and production by state and cooperative organizations, the development of standardization, legislation, and sanitary control over food products is explained primarily by the need for official regulation of food products, which would obligate producing and trading organizations to supply the population with products of a certain quality and normal composition, best promoting the growth and development of the population; of course, our official requirements also take into account the possibility of abuse by individual employees of the commodity distribution network. The direct soil for the development of adulteration in the USSR essentially does not exist due to the absence of private capital and the transfer of the production and trade of food products to the state. Adulteration of food products can be of very different nature, ranging from relatively insignificant partial changes in the composition of the sold product to the crude replacement of the entire product with another, less valuable product (see above); in all these cases, the adulterator strives to make the sold food product resemble the one for which it is sold in external properties for the purpose of facilitating deception. Therefore, if the adulterated product does not resemble the main product in organoleptic properties, it undergoes appropriate processing, which, if necessary, amounts to correcting the color (artificial coloring), taste (artificial sweetening with saccharin, dulcin, etc.), smell (artificial flavoring), consistency (saponins, agar-agar, etc.); in addition, this may be accompanied by counterfeiting of the packaging and labeling itself. Examples of color correction can include the frequent coloring of grape wine that has lost its natural color when diluted with water, or of buckwheat that has spoiled and lost its normal yellow color, etc. Examples of sweetening can include the replacement of sugar in ice cream or in fruit waters with saccharin. An example of multiple, combined adulteration can be the sale under the name 'natural berry syrup' of an artificial factory product representing a mixture of well-chosen artificial essences, colors, saccharin, diluted with water, with the addition of glycerin to give it a thick consistency. An example of complete replacement of a food product with a less valuable one is the sale of horse meat instead of beef, of margarine instead of butter, etc. An example of partial replacement is the sale of cocoa powder with the addition of flour or of milk diluted with water; an example of removal of a valuable component from the product is the sale of skimmed, skim milk. Of course, cases of selling food products of a lower grade for a higher one should also be considered as adulteration, for example, the sale of sour cream or butter of the 2nd grade instead of the 1st, etc. A detailed enumeration of cases of adulteration, even by groups, appears difficult, as they are so diverse and numerous, all the more so that with the development of technology in general, methods of adulteration also develop and multiply. The development of the private market in capitalist countries and competition lead to the intensified growth of adulteration in these countries. Surrogates of food products are understood as such objects used by humans for food, which due to the absence, shortage, and high cost of real food products are intended to serve as their replacement, having with them a greater or lesser similarity in organoleptic properties and in content of food substances. Depending on which food product the surrogate replaces, one distinguishes, for example, surrogates of bread, meat, milk, etc. The very frequent confusion of the concepts 'surrogate' and 'adulterated product' is deeply erroneous, since the latter is associated with concealing the quality and composition of the food product by a false name given to it, while a surrogate represents an open replacement of one food product by another, which is often legalized and from the point of view of nutrition hygiene sometimes even desirable. The concept 'surrogate' is very conditional, if only because the same product can be a generally accepted and desirable product for some peoples, while for others it serves as a temporary replacement under conditions of shortage of the basic food product; for example, horse meat—a generally accepted meat product for Tatars and a meat surrogate in most European countries; cow's milk, a basic food product, is called a surrogate when given to infants instead of mother's milk; corn bread, which in the Georgian SSR is one of the main types of bread commodities, is considered surrogate bread in most of our republics, etc.

The arbitrary nature of this concept also follows from the fact that some substitutes, being quite rational from the standpoint of scientific nutrition principles, over time may become so entrenched in the population's diet that, out of habit, they are consumed not as replacements for other food products, but as such alongside other basic food products; an illustration of this may be margarine, which is called a substitute for butter; margarine now has such wide and constant consumption in many European countries (even greater than butter—Denmark and others), that apparently in these countries it ceases to be perceived by the population 'as a substitute and begins to acquire the significance of an independent and important food product, while at the same time serving as a rational form of utilizing the relatively high-melting and less tasty beef tallow.

Close to the word 'substitute' and often even synonymous are the terms 'unusual' or 'rarely used' food products. The basic difference between the first and the latter should apparently be seen in that ₍that PRODUCTS

₍

unusual food products, to which one turns, as with substitutes, also in the absence of basic commonly accepted products, due to their uniqueness and lack of similarity with basic food products, are not replacements, but original and 'unusual' products. These terms are also entirely arbitrary, because a product that is 'unusual' for a given country may over time become so entrenched in the population's diet that, out of habit, it will be constantly consumed as a basic product; as an example may serve the potato, which, being brought from America to Europe for the first time in the 16th century, was initially an unusual food product, spread extremely slowly, was accepted reluctantly and distrustfully by the population in most places, and was promoted almost by government compulsion, and over the centuries it became established and acquired the widest significance.

Substitutes can be divided according to their nutritional value into three groups: useful substitutes, the introduction of which into the population's diet can be welcomed from the standpoint of scientific nutrition principles (dolphin fat, donkey meat, etc.); slightly useful substitutes, the use of which can only be tolerated as a temporary replacement for absent normal food products (oil cakes, lamb's quarters, leaves containing much fiber; parts of animals rich in connective tissue elements that are inedible: stomach, intestines, etc.); useless substitutes, which should be considered unacceptable. The use of the latter two groups of substitutes occurs in conditions of famine in various countries and from the standpoint of rationalization and the search for new raw material sources of nutrition, of course, presents no interest; in contrast to this, the first group deserves special attention both in terms of significant physiological value and the significant reserves of many of them grown by nature.

Among the latter should be included the fats of numerous plant seeds (except poisonous ones), the fats and meat of wild and domestic animals 'not used in our conditions' (dolphin, seal, shark, camel, etc.) and etc. (In our literature, the most complete review of substitutes that have been used and can be utilized in accordance with the natural resources of the USSR is given by Prof. Ya. Ya. Nikitinsky in the monograph 'Substitutes and unusual in Russia sources of food substances of plant and animal origin', M., 1921.)

Methods for the investigation of food products can be divided according to actual performance into 1) investigations carried out directly at the location of the food products—at places of production, storage, trade, public catering, at transport points, etc. 2) investigations carried out in equipped chemical and bacteriological laboratories.

The first are usually carried out under conditions that exclude the possibility of applying relatively complex but precise analytical methods, and in most cases are limited to evaluating the product with the help of the senses, i.e., determining the merits by appearance, color, smell, taste and consistency; only in rare cases are some simplest laboratory methods of an orienting nature applied.

This type of control requires special knowledge and experience in the field of sanitary-food commodity science; in addition to the limitations

Composition and caloricity of food products. Table compiled from a monograph published by the Central Statistical Administration of the USSR, edited by Prof. A. V. Leontovich: 'Normal composition and nutritional value of food products', M., 1925 (according to N. K. Ignatov).

Product names Chemical composition in % of raw substance nitrogenous substances (proteins etc.) fats carbohydrates fiber (* milk acid) water Assimilable amounts in % of raw substance nitrogenous substances (proteins etc.) fats carbohydrates / Percentage of waste 1. Meat and meat products: Fatty mutton ..... Ham ..... Fatty beef ..... Medium beef ..... Lean beef ..... Goose meat ..... Sausages and sausages ..... Horse meat ..... Rabbit meat ..... Chicken meat ..... Lights ..... Brains ..... Liver ..... Meat powder ..... Kidneys ..... Rendered beef tallow ..... Unrendered pork lard ..... Rendered pork lard ..... Fatty pork ..... Lean pork ..... Meat extract ..... Salted meat ..... Fatty veal ..... Lean veal ..... Libich meat extract ..... Tongue ..... 2. Chicken egg. 3. Fish and fish products: Sturgeon balyk ..... Salted beluga ..... Fresh vobla ..... Dried vobla ..... Red caviar ..... Black granular caviar ..... Black pausen caviar ..... Fresh crucian carp ..... Carp or sazan lean ..... Amur keta salted ..... Fresh bream ..... Salted and smoked salmon ..... Fresh lamprey ..... Navaga ..... Fresh perch ..... Fresh sturgeon ..... Roach or bublets ..... Smoked herring ..... Fresh herring ..... Salted herring ..... Fresh catfish ..... Fresh sterlet ..... Fresh pike perch ..... Salted dried pike perch ..... Salted pike perch ..... Fresh cod ..... Salted cod ..... Salted smoked shemaya ..... Smoked sprats ..... Fresh pike ..... 4. Fresh river crab 5. Milk and dairy products: Kefir ..... Koumiss ..... Butter ..... Ghee ..... Chukchi butter ..... Human milk ..... Mare's milk ..... Goat's milk ..... Condensed cow's milk without added sugar ..... Same with added sugar ..... Whole cow's milk ..... Ewe's milk .....

16.54

12.55

42.05

18.70

17.29

41.30

17.72

25.99

37.16

17.63

20.41

17.66

16.18

24.19

14.98

16.18

17.18

17.87

16.39

21.59

16.69

18.43

16.07

16.64

19.46

52.77

26.78

17.15

20.29

28.33

22.73

.18.76

16.00

3.39

2.24

1.07

2.56

2.08

1.99

3.81

11.17

10.47

3.39

5.15

21.71

2.55

0.46

21.47

9.76

0.75

19.84

5.10

1.07

15.21

2.47

0.81

9.0

9.30

.

19.38

2.78

69.50

5.84

Q.42

17.27

4.76

.

0.41

98.15

11.01

68.35

.

0.26

99.04

.

14.54

37.34

.

20.08

6.63

.

9.55

.

.

19.27

4.47

.

18.88

7.41

0.07

19.86

0.82

.

16.31

15.93

0.48

1.47

7.05

4.09

11, Ь6

13.29

0.59

0.56

8.52

1,C8

8.68

8.21

14.48

0.71

5.59

0.28

3.40

0.72

0.24

0.34

16.21

15.94

T),96

0.46

2.76

1.46

86.57

98.12

86.35

3.82

1.21

4.19

11.49

10.07

3.68

6.18

2.52

1.77

0.60

6.27

5.67

4.14

13.96

51.02

4.94

.

0.93

.

3.84

.

¹

0.97

.

1.12

.

1.21

.

1.11

17.82

0,C5

12.11

0.55

14.35

8.93

5.88

14.20

51.19

55.56

58.74

72.52

76.17

51.0

15.51

20.58

17.46

'

19.56

19.51

15.77

0.98*

0.91*

see Sausage products

1.01

74.27

66.86

72.83

79.89

80,'60

71.60

10.99

76.60

1.33

14.84

10.49

0.70

47.10

72.55

89.05

59.23

72.31

78.84

19.87

See Meat extract

1.05

64.56

73.67

12,17 6,93 10,52 1,60 14,20 7,26 4,34 7,05 .1,07 1,30 11,24 1,02 12,04 0,66 1,58 1,21 1,29 1,23 5,38 1,58 13,88 0,89 0,96 1,04 18,58 18,60 1,09 13,07 11,43 1,04 36,67 61,85 75,75 19,80 66,05 56,16 37,97 80,82 77,29 63,72 78,70 51,46 71,07 81,35 80,71 77,30 80,50 64,52 73,65 57,84 82,39 76,81 79,21 25,70 53,89 82,18 66,02 43,50 59,89 79,33 1,31 81,22 o; 65 88,86 0,4 90,44 i,i6 12,04 0,22 1,58 2,07 11,11 0,36 87,36 0,35 90,78 0,79 86,48 1,99 61,46 2,00 26,44 0,72 87,27 0,93 83,57 37,84 16,83 16,77 37,17 17,19 25,21 36,04 17,10 19,80 15,89 15,69 21,77 14,53 15,98 16,66 17,33 15,90 19,43 16,19 16,59 15,59 16,14 18,87 47,49 24,10 16,63 18,26 25,50 22,05 '18,20 15,52 3,12 2,06 0,98 2,35 1,91 1,83 3,46 10,27 9,63 3,12 4,4'7 29,51 17,76 20,33 6,25 1,91 27,26 0,66 7,04 0,78 16,93' 0,05 11,50 0,55 13,92 8,66 5,70 13,77 8,70 15,82 15,45 0,46 1,42 6,84 3,97 11,50 12,89 0,57 0,54 3,41 1,05 8,42 7,99 14,04 0,69 5,42 0,27 3,30 0,70 0,23 0,33 15,72 15,46 0,93 I 0,45 0,44 2,62 1,39 83,97 98,17 82,79 3,63 1,15 3,86 10,91 9,56 3,49 5,87 2,62 1,77 0,60 6,27 5,67 4,44 13,96 51,02 4,94 4,17 2,42 0,46 9,27 0,75 4,84 1,07 2,34 0,81 в.'вз - 4,42 2,78 5,55 0,42 4,52 - 88,33 - 64,93 - 94,09 .- 35,47 - 6,30 - 4,24 - Continuation. Name of products X name. composition in % of raw substance Milk ass's........ Milk powder from whole milk......... Same from skimmed milk . . . Sour milk . ."........ Cream . ............ Sour cream............. Cheese bakhteyn......... Cheese Dutch....... Cheese fatty.......... Cheese sheep........... Cheese semi-fatty....... Cheese Russian-Swiss . . . Cheese lean........... Fat pressed cottage cheese Lean cottage......... in. Grain grains: Buckwheat unhusked...... Lamb's lettuce ....... Maze (corn)........ Oats.............. Wheat.......^!..... Unpolished rice....... Rye . , ............ Barley ... .......... 7. Flour from grain grains: Bean..........'.. Pea.............. Buckwheat from grain shells. Buckwheat from grains cleaned of shells ........ Potato........... Corn.............. Oat.............. Wheat highest........ Wheat lowest........ Rye highest........ Rye medium........ Rice.............. Porridge ............ Lentil.............. Barley ........... 8. Groats......... 9. Bread and pasta: White kalach.......... Corn bread.......... Noodles and pasta...... Oat bread........... Wheat rusks........ Best wheat bread . . Same coarse....... . . Same rich........ Common rye bread . Same baked........ Same sifted........ Rye rusks........ French bun ...... Stale barley bread . . . 10. Vegetables and root vegetables ......... П. Mushrooms: Fresh white mushrooms boletus Same dried........ Fresh birch mushrooms...... Fresh truffles........ Fresh honey mushrooms...... Fresh russulas........ Morels fresh........ Fresh champignon mushrooms . . . . . 12. Fruits and berries 13. Oilseeds and nuts: Hemp cake........ Linseed cake........ nitrogenous substances (proteins, etc.) 9,83 5,33 10,88 4,83 9,91 6,81 9,17 10,52 7,84 7,69 6,67 11,21 9,87 9,33 26,87 31,37 fats carbohydrates fiber (*milk. acid) water Assimilable amounts in % of raw substance Pro- nitrogen- cent ous sub- carbohy- fiber drates water (proteins, etc.) 1,85 1 37 6,19 23,09 23,14 42,39 30,81 1,73 53,43 ' - 3,22 3,01 0,40* 3,01 22,62 4,30 .- 4,34 ^6,23 1,72 0,78* 23,56 за, 63 . 2,64 - 25,77 31,53 2,37 - 26,21 29,58 3,39 - 21,73 30,33 2,67 -. 29,07 24,41 2,06 -. 25,83 31,71 4,52 - 35,59 12,45 4,22 - 24,81 7,33 3,54 - 14,58 0,59 1,16 - 11,41 2,68 58,79 11,44 15,29 6,51 40,73 20,31 9,58 - 5,09 67,89 2,85 11,77 5,03 57,80 11,11 16,10 1,72 66", 26 2,27 6,38 2,1)8 69,28 6,51 13,15 1,72 68,25 1,80 12,21 2,35 65,48 4,51 23,23 ' 2,11 58,92 1,78 22,69 1,21 6,28 8,92 1,85 60,69 12,78 8,28 1,49 74,58 0,70 1,03 - 80,83 - 10,92 3,76 71,44 1,90 15,48 7,71 61,78 3,70 11,88 0,81 73,79 0,21 11,82 1,36 72,23 0,98 8,83 1,21 71,91 1,44 12,40 1,74 67,77 2,97 .7,39 0,69 78,95 0,10 15,81 6,29 63,45 2,26 25,71 1,86 56,79 2,10 9,83 1,91 72,51 0,91 0,17 5,30 6,48 0,76 0,64 0,56 5,41 6,05 4.56 "5,»5 4,26 4,92 4,68 4,02 1,16 2,38 4,91 1,47 2,91 1,70 3,57 1,90 2,50 3,36' 4,89 0,91 1,11 0,96 1,79 2,14 0,78 0,96 1,06 1,84 0,58 2,37 2,68 1,74 '90,12 6,08 7,55 88,89 70,44 67,67 36,40 31,80 .36,31 36,42 40,22 34,04 43,06' 80,27 80,64 13,27 12,22 13,32 11,28 11,07 12,18 14,78 12,95 10,57 11,98 14,99 13,84 17,18 12,37 9,18 12,64 12,65 13,19 13,06 12,29 9,ь2 10,96 13,22 1,70 1,30" 21,21 21,93 28,31 1,61 И,Я6 2,72 2,77 21,49 4,21 24,92 22,86 31,00 И4,99 29,95 25,42 28,05 23,99 28,81 28,20 23,19 25,05 30,12 34,52 11,83 21,U9 6,96 14,14 0,56 8,56 2,28 6,88 5,53 6,71 4,33 8,21 4,27 12,88 1,46 5,10 1,87 9,20 1,26 8,65 2,00 18,26 1,82 17,06 1,03 6,69 1,57 6,21 1,27 0,72 - 8,19 3,20 10,84 8,55 10,10 0,89 8,86 1,16 6,66 1,05 8,68 1,22 ' 5,91 . 0,62 11,07 5,35 18,00 1,68 6,88 1,62 6,19 42,39 53,43 3,04 4,30 1,72 2,61 2,37 3,89 2,67 2,06 4,52 4.22 1,77 1,16 55,85 36,66 64,49 54,91 62,94 65,82 61,42 5ё,93 53,03 50,27 57,65 70,86 72,75 67,87 55,60 71,58 68,62 71,18 66,46 75,00 60,28 63,95 65,20 CM. Groats see Vegetables see Fruits 8,15 23,79 33,99 23,44 8,70 8,44 7,41 8,52 18,81 7,38 21,06 7,58 6,93 21,41 30,69 0,39 52,69 0,35 ' 1,17 36,48 7,93 ' 0,33 50,72 1,95 40,18 1,79 0,85 60,14 4,00 1,66 38,17 - 0,62 75,55 0,42 0,64 11,89 9,25 0,53 73,28 - '1,12 43,63 5,31 2,96 41,01 3,38 0,95 39,27 - 2,55 75,75 0,55 1,70 9,51 7,43 2,17 71,96 - 0,54 57,80 0,31 0,88 33,66 5,79 0,46 56,07 - 0,46 47,66 0,63 1,27 42,41 6,88 0,39 45,18 - 2,38 50,99 0,22 1,17 31,62 8,91 2,02 49,46 - 0,73 43,70 1,55 1,55 43,58 5,49 0,62 39,33 - 0,48 45,16 0,37 1,18 46,32 5,77 0,41 42,90 - 0,40 51,93 0,81 0,91 36,42 5,00 0,34 52,18 - 1,25 70,72 3,48 2,88 10,85 6,74 1,06 63,65 - 2,16 51,56 0,18 0,99 32,03 8,39 1,84 52,92 -. 1,09 69,06 4,29 3,19 12,41 6,53 0,93 62,15 - 5,39 0,40 5,12 1,01 0,95 87,13. 4,31 0,34 4,61 36,66 . 2,70 34,51 6,87 6,45 12,81 22,00 2,29 31,06 2,92 0,61 1,67 3,33 0,71 90,28 2,31 0,52 1,53 1,91 0,19 5,52 1,15 0,56 90,67 1,53 0,16 4,97 2,27 0,73 9,14 0,81 1,05 86,00 1,82. 0,62 8,23 3,09 0,70 2,26 3,27 0,77 89 45 2,47 0,59 2,03 3,33 0,29 4,46 0,85 0,99 89,97 2,66 0,25 4,01 4,88 0,20 3,57 0,86 0,82 89,70 3,90 0,17 3,21 Continuation. Chem. composition in % of raw substance Name of products nitrogen- ous sub- carbohy- fiber drates water Assimilable amounts in % of raw substance Pro- nitrogen- cent ous sub- carbohy- fiber drates water (proteins, etc.) Net calories in 1 kg of market weight Sunflower cake........ Almonds (kernels)........ Walnut kernels........ Peanut kernels (kernels) . . . Pine nuts (kernels) . . . Coconut kernels (kernels) . . . Forest nuts (kernels) .".... Hemp seed ....... Flax seed .......... Sunflower seed with shells.............. Same without shells ...... Pumpkin seeds......... . 14. Sugar, honey, cocoa and beverages: Cocoa powder....... Bread kvass........ Bee honey ........ Beet sugar molasses . . Same potato...... Beer.............. Starch sugar, glucose . Beet sugar, granulated . Same refined......... Chocolate in bars...... 31,88 9,28 19,21 21,10 63,16 13,22 13,80 48,17 10,69 27,62 44,49 15,66 6,00 66,00 24,20 8,88 67,00 12,44 16,57 64,02 8,12 18,23 32,58 21,06 22,77 34,28 22,86 13,6 31,32 18,03 26,28 44,31 16,44 32,81 26,86 1,99 . 19,55 33,23 29,42 0,27 0,02 2,07 - 79,89 10,42 - 58,60 - 80,41 - 6,0 - 83,16 - 99,49 - 99,76 6,27 22,20 63,39 29,26 6,08 3,65 2,30 2,45 1,36 2,37 2,49 2,20 2,60 4,06 1,81 3,22 2,16 14,97 < 4,21 6,78 25,35 2,81 26,89 3,51 1,67 3,05 3,16 4,12 5,71 0,16 0,24 11,67 0,99 0,23 0,57 0,04 0,06 2,26 6 33 6,27 23,53 7,48 9,00 6,81 5,44 8,92 8,96 8 58 6,70 8,10 6,23 95,51 18,96 19,31 18,47 88,52 16,27 0,13 0,05 1,59 22,32 14,98 ' 9,66 19,26 4,20 6,22 11,60 12,76 15,94 9,57 18,40 22.97 13,68 0,19 0,99 7,29 7,89 46,19 40,91 37,82 47,60 56,96 54,42 27,69 29,22 26,62 37,66 22,83 28,24 0,02 0,46 - 18,87 17,29 11,90 9,62 14,08 21,78 11,20 7,31 18,95 20,5f 16,23 14,80 1,79 26,48 1,86 | 76,89 | 56,67 76,39 6,40 79,00 91,51 94,92 57,05 10 10 10 10 10 2 360 5 305 4 600 4 885- 5 490 6 010 3 835 3 490 3 795 3 110 4 375' 2 825 4 275 3 15J 2 58Э 3 130 21) 3 210 3 875 3 890 4 275 narrowness of the circle of questions permissible in such a study, its significant disadvantage is the subjectivity and frequent disagreement in the assessment of the same product by different persons; the latter is often inevitable, since such an assessment is based on personal sensations and individual characteristics of the controlling persons. However, such control also has its advantages - rapid and mass examination, During which, however, gross cases of violation of requirements are still detected.

In cases where the insufficiency of on-site research is obvious, the product is sent to the laboratory, where, in addition to so-called organoleptic research, various laboratory methods are applied; based on the totality of which, more objective and correct results can be given. An extremely important prerequisite for the error-free use of laboratory research results is, first of all, the correct selection of a sample from the product under investigation (or a batch of product) sent to the laboratory; the sample is taken in such a way that it as fully as possible represents the qualities, properties and composition of the entire batch under investigation. To prepare such an average sample, regardless of whether there are liquid, solid or loose products, it must be collected from various places in the batch or, if the packaging and mass of the product permit, it must be thoroughly mixed beforehand, as for example when taking samples of milk, sour cream, cream, etc. In case the individual parts of the batch under investigation differ in quality, then samples are taken from each of them separately, so that later they can be handled according to laboratory data. Furthermore, such appropriate packaging and rapid shipment of the sample to the laboratory are necessary, where the sample must be delivered in an unchanged state. The packaging (container) must be absolutely clean, as hermetic as possible and light-proof, strong and chemically non-reactive with its contents. The sample for bacteriological research should be sent in sterile containers. All these conditions especially apply to cases where the sample for various reasons cannot be delivered to the laboratory immediately; these requirements can be satisfied by jars or bottles of dark glass with ground stoppers; in the absence of such, simple glass containers are also used, and sometimes parchment paper. Rapid delivery of samples to the laboratory is necessary to prevent the onset or intensification of decomposition processes in them; of course, this applies especially to perishable products, for which shipment to a distant distance is considerably more favorable in cold weather. If the product is being investigated in its original packaging (jars, canned goods, patented nutritional preparations, etc.), then a whole unopened sample is sent to the laboratory. The sample being sent must be labeled, which can be done by attaching a label to the container; it indicates the place and time of sampling, the name and quantity of the product from which the sample was taken, and the signature of the person who performed the sampling. With the sample there should be an accompanying paper, where in addition to the necessary information, the purpose of the research must be precisely indicated; the absence of an indication of the specific purpose of the research puts the laboratory in a difficult position in terms of choosing methods and properly illuminating the question that caused doubts for the sanitary physician or other person who sent the sample. In cases of poisoning from this product, a brief description of the clinical picture of the poisoning is necessary, as this can give the laboratory an indication of the direction in which to look for the harmful substance. Depending on the circumstances, certain formalities are observed - preservation of a duplicate of the sample on site, application of a wax seal (by the sanitary physician, etc.), etc. Upon delivery to the laboratory, samples of perishable products are kept in a cold place (in an icehouse) until the end of the research. Laboratory research of F.p. generally differs considerable complexity, which is explained by the complexity of the composition of F.p., their relatively rapid changeability, the large number of analytical methods, as well as the great variety of research purposes and tasks. The program of their detailed sanitary research consists of the following parts: organoleptic research, determination of physical properties (specific gravity, refraction, deviation of polarized ray, spectroscopy of coloring substances, temperature, weight, volume, etc.); chemical analysis (reaction, degree of acidity and alkalinity of the product and its ash residue; water, dry residue, proteins, fats, carbohydrates and fiber; poisonous metals and organic compounds; presence of preservative, coloring and flavoring substances, etc.); bacteriological research (degree of microbial contamination; discovery of pathogenic and toxigenic microbes, etc.); biochemical research (enzymes characteristic of products and for various groups of microorganisms); biological research (experimental feeding of laboratory animals with the products under investigation; precipitation tests to determine the nature and origin of protein, etc.) and a conclusion, which indicates the laboratory's conclusion regarding the research of the sent object. The program presented is only a general scheme for the research of various F.p. and is not fully applied in practice to one object; the laboratory usually limits itself only to those methods that can resolve the questions posed; the latter can be grouped under the following headings: determination of the chemical composition of F.p. and its nutritional value; determination of naturalness and falsification; determination of freshness and spoilage; determination of harmfulness; determination of individual constituent parts and impurities of food products, characterizing it in relation to compliance with special standard requirements (grade of product, etc.). For details on laboratory research, spoilage, falsification, storage, etc., see individual products.

F.

Budagyan.