Wine

WINE, in the broad sense of the word, beverages obtained by alcoholic fermentation of juice from all kinds of fruits and berries. Wines are distinguished as grape, raisin, fruit, berry, and bread wines, so-called vodkas (see).-Grape wine represents a beverage obtained by alcoholic fermentation of grape must. The methods for obtaining various varieties of grape wine are, in general, based on the following techniques and principles: grape berries are crushed in one way or another; in this process, one tries to leave the berries and stems intact, and then separate them, since otherwise excess tannins and certain compounds that could later cause cloudiness of the wine are introduced into the must. The crushed liquid mass-must-comes into contact with air; yeast fungi, which were on the berries themselves as well as in the air, get into the sugar-rich must and cause spontaneous alcoholic fermentation in it. Fermentation is carried out in wooden vats or barrels, with the so-called mazhga (pulp) of dark grape varieties-skins and grains remaining from the pressed must-being added to the must to obtain red wines; white wines, however, are prepared by fermenting pure must without pulp. The various races of yeast living on grapes belong to the species Saccharomyces ellipsoideus. Each race imparts to the wine its characteristic "bouquet." Mold fungi and bacteria can get into the must, which, in case of strong multiplication, can spoil the wine. To avoid such accidents, now, instead of spontaneous fermentation, in the production of especially valuable wines, sometimes recourse is had to the help of pure yeast cultures-"selected races" of which there are several. For fermentation, one can choose a race possessing desirable properties and giving good wine with a certain bouquet. The entire fermentation process is divided into two periods. The period of the first (violent) fermentation is considered complete when the release of CO₂ decreases significantly and the yeast settles to the bottom. It lasts for different lengths of time, depending on conditions. The main reason for this is the temperature at which fermentation takes place. At 16-20° it proceeds in 1-2 weeks; in cold cellars it can be delayed for 5-6 weeks. After the violent fermentation is completed, the young wine is separated from the yeast and aged in barrels for further (quiet) fermentation, which can be delayed for 2-3 years. During this time, the wine undergoes various other treatments. During storage in barrels, part of the wine passes through the pores of the wood and evaporates; in this case, free space forms above the surface of the wine, favorable to its souring due to the development of acetic acid bacteria (Bact. aceti, Bact. Pasteurianum, etc.); besides that, "bloom" of the wine may appear-formation of a white film on the surface of the wine from the development of the fungus Mycoderma vini. To prevent this, barrels are topped up with wine as soon as they are found to be incomplete. In case of lack of necessary cleanliness in production and infection of the wine with harmful microorganisms, in addition to those mentioned above, other diseases can also occur, for example, the so-called viscosity of the wine, caused by Bacillus viscosus; lactic oxidation, caused by lactic acid bacteria, etc. Generally accepted preventive measures consist, besides maintaining elementary cleanliness throughout production, in smoking barrels with clean sulfur (not containing arsenic), as well as pasteurizing the wine by heating to 60-70°. After aging and processing, the wine is bottled. The chemical composition of grape must and the wine obtained from it differ significantly. The comparative qualitative and quantitative composition of wine and must is presented in the form of a table in the manual Babo u Mach, Handbuch des Weinbaues und der Kellerwirtschaft. According to their data, the sugar contained in the must from 10 to 30% is almost absent in wines (except liqueur wines), since it breaks down into ethyl alcohol and CO₂, which almost completely volatilizes; in wine, succinic and acetic, butyric, caproic, caprylic, enanthic and other acids appear; under the influence of alcohol, the amount of nitrogenous compounds and wine stone decreases; tannins and glycerin increase, etc. In addition, in wine, in small quantities along with ethyl alcohol, a number of higher alcohols are formed, united under the name "fusel oil" (propyl, butyl, amyl, etc.). Finally, complex esters appear, known under the general name of ethereal ester, formed from the combination of alcohol with fatty acids and giving a special bouquet to the wine. Depending on the grape variety and method of preparation, there are numerous varieties of grape wines in trade, which are divided into 4 groups: 1) table wines, 2) liqueur wines, 3) dessert wines, and 4) sparkling wines. Table wines are those obtained from almost completely fermented must, with a small sugar content. Wines of this group are divided by sugar content and taste properties into dry (sec), semi-dry (demi-sec) and sweet. The sugar content in dry wines usually does not exceed 0.5%. The alcohol content varies from 8 to 14%; the total acidity, on average, is equal to 0.6-0.7 g of tartaric acid in 100 cubic cm of wine. Table wines are white, red, and rosé.-Table wines are produced in large quantities in the USSR in Transcaucasia, the North Caucasus, the Crimea, and on the Don. Among the best foreign table wines in the USSR, the most well-known are: red-Bordeaux and Burgundy, white-Rhine, Moselle, Burgundy, and Chablis.-Liqueur wines are distinguished by a significant sugar content-from 3 to 20%. The average alcohol content in them is about 15%. The high sugar content is explained by the preliminary withering of the grapes on the vines or after harvesting, thanks to which water evaporates and the sugar content in the must can reach 35%. Since yeast can produce no more than 15-16% alcohol in the must, a significant residue of undegraded sugar remains, which is the most characteristic feature of this group of wines. The most important liqueur wines: muscat, from the muscat grape variety (France, Crimea), Tokay (Hungary) and Malaga (Spain).-Dessert wines are distinguished by a high alcohol content, reaching 25%, and a relatively small percentage of sugar compared to liqueur wines. The high alcohol content is achieved by adding grape or other alcohol to more or less fermented must. The most important varieties of dessert wines: port wine (Portugal, partly the southern coast of the Crimea), Madeira (island of Madeira; under this name and according to this type, wines are also produced in Portugal, Spain, Italy, in the south of France, and also in the Crimea); sherry (Spain); Marsala (Sicily).-Sparkling wines, called champagnes, since they were first produced in Champagne (France), differ greatly from other groups in the method of preparation: table wines obtained from certain grape varieties (Pinot) are mixed in certain proportions and a little sugar dissolved in old white wine is added to the mixture so that a new fermentation necessary for saturating the wine with carbon dioxide can occur. The mixture is poured into thick-walled bottles, which are placed in cellars with the cork down. The wine in the bottles ferments, becoming saturated with CO₂ in the process. The sediment of yeast formed during fermentation is removed from the bottles by a special method, and they are topped up with a mixture of old white wine, sugar, and cognac. Champagne wines contain 10.5-12% alcohol and have 0.55-0.65% total acidity. Besides the French method described, many sparkling wines are prepared by artificial saturation of white wine with CO₂. The amount of the most important ingredients in grape wines varies within wide limits: alcohol content is 7-18% by volume, sugar-0.05-8.3%, extract-1.1-15.0%, acid-0.05-0.84%, glycerin up to 1.8%. The average composition of Russian and some of the most famous foreign wines is given in the table presented here. The tendency of winemakers to increase the yield of wine, to increase its stability during storage, to improve taste qualities, and sometimes the desire for easy gain often lead to the use of methods in production that give a product not quite natural or obviously falsified; there are many such methods (the most well-known of them are listed below).-Chaptalization consists in the fact that the excess acid contained in the must obtained from immature or very sour grapes is neutralized with chalk (marble), and the lack of sugar is made up with cane sugar, and sometimes also starch sugar.-Gallization consists in diluting very sour must (from immature grapes) with water and adding cane sugar to it to reduce the acidity of the must and increase the yield of wine.-Under petiotization is meant the method of obtaining low-value wine by fermenting pomace (pulp) in mixture with sugar water.

For preserving W., besides pasteurization and smoking barrels with sulfur, freezing of W. is applied; with this, due to the release of water in the form of ice and its removal, the concentration of alcohol increases, and depending on this, the strength for storage increases; for the same purpose—to increase the strength of W.; during transportation and storage—the addition of alcohol (vinage) is practiced; such an addition may be harmful for consumption in the case of using poorly purified alcohol with a high content of fusel oil; the addition of preserving agents—benzoic, salicylic, boric acids, borax, and many others—is unacceptable, due to the non-indifference of these agents to the body, etc.—For improving wine, the following are used: blending (coupage)—mixing different wines to obtain a product that does not have the shortcomings of each. Average composition of grape wines. Name of wine | Alcohol in volume !% Extract at 100 by French method Ash Total acidity as C₄H₆O₆, Glycerin Sugar-Fatty (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁) substances Nitrogen. Russian Kherson wines White table wines......... Red wines »

I Burgundy ordinary red wines ! d Bordeaux

»

»

i 1' Moselle and Saar white wines ....' 9' Dessert (liqueur) and strong wines

1 Tokay..................| 14 , Port................| 20, Madeira.................118, Sherry..................i 20, Malaga..................! 1 5, 33 | 85 | 68 i 52 04 9 4 : 44 1 12 14 1 29 | 27 ' 109, 15, 195, 27; 239, 14. 2i: 16. 1Э; 0 6 99 21 23 21 5 22 61 99 18,9 22,08 23,10 127 82. 52! 40: 220, 2 5 30 60 8 2 96 I 83 49 37 10 2,67 3.26 3,00 2,70 : 2,89 O O } ! г! 57! 2.761 3,01 i ,95 ,33 ^: ,60 ! 6,68 5,55 5,9 7 6.38 6,27 6,4 6 7,44 6.83 6,29 6,69 4, 6 2 4,94 8.00 6,60 7,70 ,15 ,93 ,96 7., 64 82 9 6 04 23 06 ,56 ,95 , 5-7 . 5 7-7, 5 6,6 11,1 3,4 л и т p 0,47 0,34 34,15 1; 77 140,1 0,84 0,32 104,4 1,95 1,92 4,81 1,32 1.58 2,00 90. 60. 29. 24. 183. 0,28 0,94 0,42 2,04 0,76 1,20 0,17 1,61 2,72 3,4 5 3,60 o ! - 0 | - г I - 0,49 0,37 0,22 0,28 0,45 0,20 0,25 0,63 0,15 0, 0,21 0,61 * The table is compiled from materials presented in the 'Guide to the Study of Grape Wine', written by the staff of the Winemaking Station of Russian Winemakers in Odessa in 1915. Among them separately (for example, with the aim of reducing acidity, acidic must is mixed with sweet must); glycerinization - the addition of glycerin (sometimes containing harmful metals) to soften the taste and mask the defects of wine that has been diluted with water; gypsuming - the addition of calcium sulfate to the must for the purpose of clarifying the wine and increasing its strength: this salt undergoes exchange decomposition with the potassium phosphate and potassium tartrate of the must, as a result of which insoluble calcium salts are precipitated from the solution, and the resulting potassium sulfate remains in the wine. Due to the non-indifference of the latter for health, in the USSR and in many countries the sale of wine containing more than 0.2% K₂SO₄ is prohibited. The numerous and diverse forms of falsification of grape wines, in general, come down to the following: 1. Increasing the quantity of wine by pasteurization and diluting it with water and other low-value beverages; since this leads to a decrease in the strength and acidity of the wine, weakening of its strength and color, at the same time the need for additional falsification arises: fortification, artificial coloring, preservation, etc. 2. Changes in the external appearance and properties of wine with the aim of giving cheap wines the appearance, taste and smell of more expensive ones (falsifications of this kind are the most common). 3. The use of preservatives to increase the stability of wine during storage. They are most often applied to young wines to keep them in a certain stable state in order to avoid expenses associated with aging and care for them until the moment of their maturity. 4. Falsifications of an 'analytical character'. Experienced falsifiers, familiar with the hygienic requirements for grape wine, often introduce into it such impurities that make it possible to bring the content of natural components of the falsified wine to the norm, thereby misleading the sanitary laboratory. The falsification of grape wines, which has developed in our country (as in many Western European countries) extremely intensively, served as the reason for the issuance in Russia in 1914 of a special law on grape wine. In 1927, the People's Commissariat of Health of the RSFSR, in circular No. 20/32 of January 18, published the 'Rules for the preparation and sale of grape wines in the RSFSR', which largely confirmed the aforementioned law ('Bulletin of the People's Commissariat of Health of the RSFSSR', i927, No. 3). Paragraph 3 of these 'Rules' permits the following technical methods for the production of grape wines: 1) pasteurization of must and wine; 2) the use of pure yeast cultures; 3) clarification of wine by fining with egg white, fish glue, pure gelatin, albumin and casein; 4) mechanical clarification of wine - by the introduction of asbestos, cellulose and pure quartz sand, kaolin, infusorial earth, animal and vegetable charcoal; 5) filtration through fabrics and substances insoluble in wine; 6) the addition of tannin, citric and tartaric acids, potassium hydrogen tartrate and chemically pure precipitated calcium carbonate (not exceeding 400 mg per liter) and pure crystalline ammonium phosphate in the amount necessary to ensure normal fermentation; 7) concentration of wine by freezing; 8) blending of wines; 9) the addition of sodium chloride not more than 0.1%; 10) the use of sulfuric acid and smoking barrels with pure sulfur (not exceeding 200 mg of sulfuric acid per 1 liter and, including, 20 mg of free sulfuric acid); the sulfur used must be pure and free from arsenic. The addition of potassium metabisulfite is permitted not exceeding 20 g per hectoliter; 11) boiling of the must or concentration under reduced pressure; 12) the addition of concentrated grape must from fresh grapes, but not raisins, or grape rectified spirit not below 94°, and cognac spirit not below 80°, provided that the total strength does not exceed for table wines-11% by volume, for dessert and liqueur wines-16% and for strong wines-20%; 13) the addition to the must intended for the production of table wine of cane sugar, provided that the total amount of alcohol in table wine does not exceed 10%; 14) gypsuming of the mash, provided that the amount of potassium sulfate in the wine does not exceed 2 g per 1 liter of wine. Paragraphs 6, 7, 8 and 9 (in the production of grape wine for sale) prohibit the addition to the must of water, fruit, berry or raisin wines, juices, extracts and decoctions, as well as any coloring and fragrant substances; the sale of spoiled grape wines is prohibited - rancid, viscous and soured wines; soured wines are considered to contain in 1 liter more than 2 g of volatile acids listed as acetic acid. In strong and dessert wines, the content of volatile acids is permitted up to 2.5 g per 1 liter. The addition to grape wine of substances harmful to health is prohibited, such as various artificial sweeteners, coal dyes, benzoic, salicylic, boric, nitric, hydrofluoric, oxalic acids and their salts, hydrochloric and sulfuric acids, formalin, abrastol, compounds of aluminum, lead, mercury and barium, strontium and magnesium, dulcin, glucose and glycerin. The present 'Rules', only a small part of which is presented here, came into force on January 1, 1927. The practical implementation of the aforementioned law and the fight against falsification are possible only with active control over the product, in which laboratory research of grape wine occupies the most important place. In a detailed sanitary analysis of grape wine, the following determinations are made: external examination of the wine and tasting; determination of the specific gravity of the wine, determination of the amount of alcohol, extract, ash and its alkalinity, total acidity and separately-volatile and non-volatile acids, tartaric acid, inverted sugar, cane sugar, rotation of the plane of polarization, amount of glycerin, sulfuric acid, tannins, phosphoric acid, preservatives (boric, benzoic, salicylic acids, formalin, etc.), artificial sweeteners (saccharin, dulcin), determination of artificial coloring, harmful metals (barium, strontium, copper, etc.) and, finally, microscopic examination of the wine to determine the type of wine disease and its causative agent [wine bloom, caused by Mycoderma vini, acetic souring-Acetobacter aceti, propionic fermentation-Oenobacillus propionici, viscosity of wine-Bact. vinicola, rancidity-Bact. amaracrylus, etc.]. The sanitary assessment of the data obtained from chemical research is based on detailed knowledge of the composition of natural wines and on the qualitative and quantitative determination of the components of the wine being examined, however, the absolute amounts of ingredients in natural wines fluctuate within wide limits, and therefore it is often not possible to give a correct assessment only by determining the composition of the wine. In such cases, the following positions, based on the mutual relationships of the components of the wine, can provide very valuable, and sometimes even decisive, indications: 1. The sum of alcohol (in volume %) and acidity (in grams of H₂SO₄ per liter) must be equal to or greater than the number 12.5; otherwise the wine is diluted with water. 2. For 100 weight parts of alcohol, there should be 7-14 parts of glycerin; if above 14-glycerin has been added. 3. The ratio of alcohol (in grams per liter) to the reduced extract should be equal to or less than 7 for white wines and equal to or less than 5 for red wines; otherwise the wine is fortified. In addition, there is a whole series of ratios established by the rules of Ross, Halphen, Blore, etc., which can also greatly facilitate the correct assessment of grape wine. These rules do not apply to some grape wines, for example, to Bessarabian wines. Substances that give bouquet to the drink act by dilating the blood vessels of the face and membranes of the brain, causing a rush of blood to the head; aldehydes, contained more in young wines, act stupefyingly; tannins, contained more in red wines, have an astringent effect on the intestine; white wines, due to their content of tartaric and other acids, have a laxative effect, etc.

The nutritional value of grape wine, determined mainly by its extractive substances, is small and is largely counteracted by the alcohol content, which exhibits a toxic effect on the body when introduced in significant quantities. (For the effect of wine on humans, see Alcoholism.) Grape wine as an alcoholic beverage is sometimes used for therapeutic purposes in high fevers and fainting. For these purposes, it is recommended to use exclusively naturally fermented wines with the smallest possible content of fusel oil, aldehydes, and other harmful impurities.

F. Budagyan. Medical wines are prepared by dissolving a medicinal substance in grape wine, infusing it with wine, or mixing it with wine. The Pharmacopoeia of the USSR, VII edition, does not consider any preparation made on grape wine. However, those accepted by earlier editions of Russian pharmacopoeias and added to the pharmacy tariff—quinine wine, pepsin wine, tartar emetic wine, autumn crocus seed wine, and ipecac wine—are still prescribed by doctors in the USSR and are available in pharmacies. Foreign pharmacopoeias, in addition to the wines mentioned, consider more than 30 medical wines—with iron, cascara, rhubarb, camphor, with coca leaf, with kola nut, etc. Vinum chinae—quinine wine (Ph. VI)—4 weight parts of sherry are mixed with 1 weight part of quinine tincture. Vinum pepsini—pepsin wine (Ph. VI)—12 parts pepsin, 12 parts glycerin, 2 parts diluted HCl and 274 parts white wine. Vinum stibiatum—wine of tartar emetic (Ph. VI)—1 part tartar emetic and 250 parts sherry. It is prescribed as an expectorant, 20-30 drops several times a day. The maximum single dose is 1.75 g, daily 6 g; as an emetic, it is prescribed by the teaspoonful every 10-15 minutes until effect. Vinum colchici—autumn crocus wine, prepared from the seeds of Colchicum autumnale on sherry. 10 parts wine correspond to 1 part autumn crocus seeds. Autumn crocus wine is used purely empirically for gout and chronic rheumatism, 10-15 drops several times a day (it reduces pain); the maximum daily dose is 5-6 g. V. Colchici, on the basis of the decision of the 1st Brussels Conference, has been excluded from most pharmacopoeias; the German Pharmacopoeia requires dispensing Tinct. Colchici if V. Colchici is prescribed. Russian pharmacopoeias (V, VI and VII) do not contain V. Colchici. Vinum ipecacuanhae—ipecac wine, is prepared (according to Ph. V) from sherry with ipecac root. 10 parts wine correspond to 1 part root; the wine contains 0.2% alkaloids. Ipecac wine is also used as an expectorant, 15-30 drops several times a day; the maximum single dose is 1.75 g; for the day—6 g; as an emetic for diphtheria, false croup, for adults by the tablespoonful every 10-15 minutes until effect (Ph. VI and Ph. VII do not consider this preparation). The Brussels Conference (1902) excluded V. Ipecacuanhae from the list of rational dosage forms. Lit.: State Pharmacopoeia of the USSR, M., 1925; Addition to the Pharmacy Tariff, M., 1917; Gabrilovich I. G., On the Question of Medical Wines, Moscow, 1928; Schmidt E., Ausführliches Lehrbuch der pharmazeutischen Chemie, Vol. II-Organic Chemistry, 1916; Rosenberg E., Pharmacopendium, Berlin-Wien, 1922; Handbook of Practical and Scientific Pharmacy, ed. by H. Thorns, Vol. I-IV, Berlin-Wien, 1924-26.

H. Kornilov. Fruit and berry wines are obtained by the alcoholic fermentation of the juice of fresh fruits and berries (apples, pears, gooseberries, currants, raspberries, strawberries, etc.). The method of their preparation is similar to that of grape wine. Unlike the latter, in most cases in fruit and berry winemaking, the juice pressed from fruits and berries is improved, because it contains relatively much acid and little sugar, and the wine made directly from it turns out to be weak and acidic. The usual correction consists of diluting the juice with water (reducing acidity) and adding sugar. An essential difference in the composition of these wines from grape wines is that in the former, acidity is mainly due to malic and citric acids, while in the latter it is due to tartaric acid. Weak fruit and berry wines usually contain 5-7% alcohol, strong ones 10-12%. These wines are widely distributed abroad (the homeland of the most common fruit wine, apple wine, called 'cider', is considered to be Normandy and Brittany); in the USSR they are little distributed. The work of E. Ya. Zarin and his colleagues shows that the composition of 137 samples of Russian fruit and berry wines varies within the following limits: specific gravity 1.105-0.983; alcohol by volume not more than 17.44%; total extract 31.78%-1.18; ash 0.793%-0.098%; inverted sugar 19.94%-0.0; cane sugar 7.05%-0.0; total acidity 1.501%-0.344; tannins 0.229%-0.013; volatile acids 3.561%-0.01. Raisin wine is a beverage obtained by the alcoholic fermentation of an aqueous infusion of raisins. To make wine, raisins are soaked in vats with warm (30-70°) water for 2-3 days, passed through a grater and infused with water. The aqueous infusion is separated from the pomace, the amount of sugar in it is determined, it is diluted with water according to the desired strength of the wine, and the resulting must is fermented at 18-22°. The further process is similar to the production of grape wine. Raisin wines do not contain substances foreign to grapes and are so similar in chemical composition to grape wines that they cannot be distinguished by ordinary analysis. Some indication may be given by a positive reaction to nitrates, if the water used to dilute the must contained nitrates. The admixture of raisin, fruit and berry wines to grape wine or their sale as grape wine is considered falsification. The People's Commissariat of Health of the RSFSR, in circular No. 59 of March 4, 1927, published rules for the preparation, storage and sale of fruit and berry and raisin wines in the RSFSR, indicating the permissible technical methods of their preparation and standards of impurities ('Bulletin of the People's Commissariat of Health of the RSFSR', 1927, No. 6).—Bread wine, see Vodka.