Nurseries

NURSERIES, institutions whose purpose is the collective care and upbringing of young children and their health improvement. Collective upbringing of early childhood is carried out to a significant extent through nurseries. Under the conditions of the second five-year plan, nurseries become the main institution for the protection of motherhood and infancy. The main task of nurseries is to organize the daily life of the child and, along with consultation for women, to organize the labor and living conditions of the working mother, thereby solving the task of involving new cadres of women in production. The development and quality of nursery work depend to a large extent not only on the fulfillment of the plan for women's labor and thus the entire national economic plan for industry and agriculture, but also on the creation of a basis for rational child care and collective upbringing of healthy childhood. In nurseries, the foundations of correct physical and general development of children—future builders of communist society—must be laid. The qualities and skills that are essential for a participant in socialist construction, the foundations of creative human labor activity, are laid from early childhood. The development of cognitive abilities, the ability to orient oneself in space and in the environment, interest in labor processes, and familiarity with adult labor lay the foundations in nursery children for the development of a communist attitude toward labor. The ability to live in a collective, to take into account the desires and convenience of others, develops in early childhood the ability for "united solid discipline." That is why in the second five-year plan for the protection of motherhood and infancy, a large section is devoted to the development of pedagogical work in nurseries and communist upbringing of early childhood. The entire system of children's institutions acquires special value when compared with the position of working women in capitalist countries, where there is nothing similar to our institutions, our system of protection of motherhood and infancy. The care of childhood is such a subsidy to the individual budget of the working family that one cannot even dream of under the capitalist system. From the very beginning of the organization of the protection of motherhood and infancy, nurseries were given enormous importance, but the growth of the nursery network in the first years lagged significantly behind the growth of other institutions. Since initially the organization of the protection of motherhood and infancy grew beyond the capabilities and material resources available to it, the OMM organs tried to shift material costs to those organizations whose funds could be attracted to this cause, and first of all to economic organizations. This connection with economic organizations initially determined the nature of nurseries. The organs of the NKZdrava until 1924 mainly exercised control over nurseries, but almost did not organize them. Economic organs managed nurseries, and nurseries by no means always met all the requirements of hygiene and pedagogy and left much to be desired. Since 1930, the financing of nurseries has been carried out mainly from the funds of the Tsusstrakh (VSSPS) without special deductions from wages. The powerful scale of socialist construction was accompanied by a huge increase in the budget of the Tsusstrakh. In 1934, 120 million rubles were allocated from the funds of the Tsusstrakh, and in 1935—175 million rubles, which went to the maintenance of nurseries. In 1931, the Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR decided: 1. To establish mandatory deductions from the funds for improving the living conditions of workers and employees for the organization and maintenance of nurseries in the amount of 10%, and for preschool institutions in the amount of 8%, with the possibility of increasing this amount of deductions by agreement with the relevant trade unions for individual industrial enterprises with a significant proportion of female workers. 2. To establish from January 1, 1931, for all state and cooperative, industrial and commercial enterprises on the territory of the RSFSR under the jurisdiction of the departments, institutions and organizations of the USSR, employing not less than 25% of female workers or having not less than 200 women workers, mandatory contributions in the amount of 1/2% of the total fund of wages paid by these enterprises for the organization and maintenance of nurseries and preschool institutions. But the development of the nursery network was hampered not so much by the lack of funds as by the lack of premises for nurseries. The housing fund that could be used was completely exhausted. Therefore, from 1929-1930, the construction of special premises for nurseys began to develop intensively. The construction of nurseries is carried out mainly from allocations from the budget of the Tsusstrakh and from trusts and associations of industrial people's commissariats. Housing construction cooperatives, by a special resolution of the SNK from 1929, were obliged to allocate for the construction of nurseries 5% of construction sums and 10% of apartment rent, but these amounts, scattered among a large number of cooperatives, did not bring significant improvement to the construction of nurseries. Therefore, it was very important to ensure that when building residential houses, premises for nurseries were allocated in kind. This was achieved in 1931. The resolution of the SNK of the RSFSR of April 22, 1931, directly states: "6. In order to provide nurseries and preschool institutions with premises, it is proposed: a) The Councils of People's Commissars of autonomous republics, regional and executive committees and city councils, as well as the Central Housing Union of the RSFSR, to allocate in all new large houses and groups of houses, newly built or put into operation, part of the living area for the development of nurseries and preschool institutions." In order to attract the funds of the working population for the organization and equipment of nurseries, as early as 1929, at the Fourth All-Union Conference on the Protection of Motherhood and Infancy, a resolution was adopted on the introduction of partial payment in nurseries. The increase in the level of wages, the wide involvement of women workers in production, leading to an increase in the living standard of the working family, and finally the movement for socialist education among the working masses themselves made it quite possible to raise and positively resolve this issue. It is quite obvious that without the broad material and organizational participation of housing construction cooperatives, consumer cooperatives, Tsusstrakh, trade unions, and the participation of the population itself, it would be impossible to achieve the actual mass coverage of children of working women with nurseries and make nurseries an essential part of the Soviet socialist way of life. How large the nursery fund is, or rather, in what figures the unified financial plan for the development of the nursery network is expressed, can be judged by the plan for 1935 (in million rubles): Table 1. Nursery Fund Local budget . . Funds of social insurance. 1/2% of wages. . . . Fubr......... Funds of parents. Industrial cooperatives . . Other funds . . Total . 1934 1935 37.0 127.1 76.3 113.7 15.2 48.5 4.8 20.1 3.5 9.6 17.2 15.7 24.4 178.0 348.8 By the decree of the SNK of the USSR of June 28, 1936, "On the prohibition of abortions, increase in material assistance to pregnant women..." a powerful impetus is given to the development of nurseries. For the expansion of the nursery network, in addition to the 1936 budget, 346 million rubles were allocated, and significant changes were made to the financing procedure itself: in amendment to the resolution of the SNK of the USSR of July 6, 1935, on the mandatory contribution of all institutions and enterprises in the amount of 1/2% of the wage fund for the maintenance of nurseries and kindergartens, direct allocations from the state budget for this purpose were established, and for 1936, 300 million rubles were allocated. Statistical indicators of nursery services for the female proletariat. Statistics show that from 1923 to 1928, the growth of children in nurseries was 63%, while the growth of the female workforce was 121%, as can be seen from Table 2. This table shows the curve of growth of nursery beds, gives quantitative indicators. It should be noted a shift in nursery services for children of working women from 1929. From this year, the growth of the network begins to outpace the growth of the female workforce, and the quantitative indicators of child care increase year by year, especially from 1931. Table 2. Dynamics of service of women trade union members by nurseries. Years Number of women trade union members employed Number of children served Growth of female workforce Growth of served children Per 1000 women workers, served children 1,015,700 19,659 100 18.8 1,220,800 21,633 117 17.7 1,660,600 24,094 15.5 1,913,800 24,609 12.8 2,121,700 26,600 12.4 2,311,800 32,046 13.8 2,411,700 52,000 21.5 3,174,000 59,000 104 18.5 4,204,800 122,500 29.1 5,056,800 189,096 37.3 5,855,800 232,205 180 33.8 7,175,900 264,510 36.8 - 366,000 - By the same decree of the SNK of the USSR of June 28, 1936, the NKZdrava of the union republics were proposed to double the existing network of nursery beds for children in cities, state farms, workers' settlements, and on railway transport by January 1, 1939, bringing their total number to 800,000 beds. The socialist reconstruction of the national economy determined two moments that required a reorganization of nursery work. Firstly, the high rates taken for the industrialization of the country are accompanied by the rapid involvement of new female workers in production. In 1928, we had 2,140,000 women employed in production, and by the end of the first five-year plan, this figure had increased to almost 6 million and to 33.7% of the total number employed in production. In 1935, the percentage of women involved in production is 35% of the total number of workers.

The second moment related to the socialist reconstruction of industry is the introduction of the 7-hour workday, associated with the involvement of women workers in night shifts. The first changes in nursery work were related to the task of serving night shifts. Since there was no experience in this regard, two options were initially proposed. In the Ivanovo Industrial Region, work proceeded along the lines of restructuring and reorganizing nurseries on a 3-shift basis. This caused an incredible disorganization of institutional life, because the introduction of 3 shifts does not occur uniformly throughout production, but by workshops; shifts change every five-day period, etc. There was constant movement of children, which adversely affected the life of the institution and the condition of the children themselves, and the educational value of the nursery for children was significantly reduced. The composition of the children's collective constantly changed; the turnover of children hindered the implementation of the children's daily routine. The domestic value of such nurseries was inadequate from both the perspective of child education and ensuring rest for the working woman. Therefore, the Department for the Protection of Motherhood and Infancy of the People's Commissariat of Health, discussing this issue, opted for another option for the introduction of an extended nursery day, under which the child spends the entire day in the nursery—12-13-14 hours. At night, the child returns home. When this system of extended-day nurseries was introduced, its advantages and disadvantages quickly became apparent. The advantage is that the child is not left home unattended, and the educational influence of the nursery does not disappear for them, while the mother has the opportunity to rest without the child after her night shift. The most significant disadvantage was that at night the child was often left unattended. Therefore, a new type of nursery emerged—24-hour nurseries, in which the child remains round the clock for the entire five-day period while the mother is occupied with night shifts. The 24-hour nurseries best serve the interests of both mother and child, since the task of the nursery is not only to free the mother for work time but also to increase her labor productivity, create conditions for her complete rest, free up her time for study, and for social work. However, the development of 24-hour nurseries is currently hindered by their high cost and organizational complexity, as they become institutions for almost permanent residence of children; with insufficient staff and low qualifications, managing such institutions is extremely difficult. Therefore, 24-hour nurseries are still relatively few in number. For now, it can be said with certainty that the type of nursery with 8-9 hours of children's presence does not fully contribute to the involvement of women in production, social work, and study, and the main type of nursery should be considered the one with the child's extended stay—12-14 hours. Shift nurseries with 8-9 hours of children's presence are permissible at this stage only temporarily, due to the lack of nursery places. The new and ever-increasing demands on the nursery network, posed by the socialist reconstruction of the national economy and the mass involvement of women in production, and the sharp lag in the growth of nurseries behind the need for them, have forced the Department for the Protection of Motherhood and Infancy to seek new, more simplified forms of nursery service for children. It was necessary to expand the network more broadly and achieve mass coverage of children of working women with nurseries. The Department for the Protection of Motherhood and Infancy then embarked on the path of developing so-called house nurseries, which, due to the simplicity of their organization, were called 'primitives.' The organization of house nurseries is a form of 'cooperation' of the population around the construction of domestic institutions. House nurseries are built at the expense of the health authorities' budget, but with the mandatory involvement of funds from the population—consumer cooperatives, housing-construction cooperatives, and the parents themselves. They have not yet received the necessary scale due to the acute housing crisis, which makes it difficult to allocate premises. House nurseries aimed to organize the initiative and self-activity of the working population in the matter of social education of young children with the help and under the guidance of the authorities for the protection of motherhood and infancy. House nurseries were organized at large housing cooperatives and in worker settlements. They serve the children of both working women and the wives of workers and employees who are members of the housing cooperative living in that particular housing cooperative. House nurseries are intended for children from 1 year to 4 years of age. The number of children in each nursery is 15-17. The premises must consist of at least 2 rooms, exclusively for the children's use. In extreme cases, one large room with an area of at least 4 m² per child is permissible. In addition, it is necessary to have a toilet-room for children and a kitchen. It is necessary to have a clean area in the courtyard or garden for the nursery's use—for walks and daytime stay in warm weather. In the absence of a separate room for the toilet-room, an isolated part of the corridor or hallway may be adapted for a children's toilet. In the absence of a separate kitchen, the nursery must be granted the right to use a common kitchen. The feeding of children should generally be conducted in the nursery. Food is prepared under the supervision of the nursery sister. If it is impossible to organize feeding completely in the nursery, children receive breakfast in the nursery, but for lunch they must go home at designated hours. The service staff for a nursery with 15-17 children should consist of one sister and one technician. To assist them, on-duty mothers (1-2) must be involved. In terms of medical service and supervision, nurseries are attached to the nearest consultation center. The funds necessary for the organization and maintenance of the nursery are raised from the following sources: a) the local budget, b) the housing cooperative, c) the parents' funds. - a) The budget's share should include expenses for staff maintenance and operating expenses (laundry of bedding, minor current repairs), office expenses. - b) The housing cooperative provides the appropriate living space and pays for utilities and heating expenses. - c) The parents' share includes expenses for children's food and an entrance fee for equipping the nursery. In practice, fees are paid in proportion to earnings according to a scale set by the People's Commissariat of Health. In the second five-year plan, the Soviet country has reached such high levels of economic development that it can now pay incomparably more attention than before to the direct satisfaction of the needs of living people, the builders of socialism. Therefore, in the historic resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR of July 10, 1935, 'On the Reconstruction of Moscow,' in the section on cultural-domestic service to the working population, the type of children's institutions is raised to the highest level. In the new Moscow, 'the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR consider incorrect the tendency to confine the placement of all these institutions in each large house only for the residents of that house: schools, outpatient clinics, canteens, kindergartens, children's nurseries, theaters, cinemas, clubs, hospitals, stadiums, and other forms of cultural-domestic service to the population should be located in the center of a series of quarters, with the aim of serving the population living not in one, but in dozens of houses.' Therefore, house nurseries—primitives—will gradually be phased out. Another form of primitives has emerged in the form of playgrounds at nurseries, clinics, and consultation centers, and in the form of so-called walking groups. The development of playgrounds is connected with health campaigns and is practiced mainly in the summer, but the most organized playgrounds function in winter as well and increase the number of children served with medical and pedagogical care. A walking group consists of 12-15 children from one or several neighboring houses who walk for several hours daily at a set time under the common responsibility and supervision of one on-duty mother. The walking group is organized and instructed by the district doctor and the sister of the children's consultation center of the given area. One district (patronage) sister of the consultation center can have 3-4 such walking groups under her general supervision on her area. Mothers take turns on duty, sometimes by decades. At first, walking groups were organized for 2-3 morning hours. Life has shown that walking groups can function for longer periods if the organization of communal feeding of children is provided. If there is a place where children can rest and they are provided with at least one meal, then children stay in walking groups for 5-6 hours. This form of work has been included in the plan of the second five-year period for the protection of motherhood and infancy as one of the forms of mass health measures for nursery-age children. It must be said that nurseries are an institution that has not yet completed its cycle of development. They have been restructured more than once in connection with changes in our economic policy and will be restructured again. It is entirely natural that the broad social offensive could not but raise the question of adapting the work of nurseries to the pace of involving working women in production, of reviewing and changing once again their forms and methods of work, and of more closely linking the work of nurseries with the production they serve. Without the mass development of a network of house nurseries, nursery playgrounds, and nursery groups with their subsequent transformation into a normal, stationary nursery network, it is impossible to achieve the enormous quantitative growth of the nursery network and the coverage of nursery assistance for both existing and newly involved cadres of working women, as outlined by the directives of the Party and the government.

In the development of the network of in-home nurseries, nursery sites, and nursery groups, a huge role belongs to the organization of the initiative activity of the working population. The full implementation of the nurseries' turn 'toward production' will take place when nurseries become an organic component part of the enterprise. For this, nurseries should consider themselves a link, and moreover the most important one, of the entire system of organizing the protection of motherhood and infancy at the enterprise, having as its task the care of serving children of nursery age of all female workers of this enterprise. For this purpose, nurseries identify the need for nursery service and take into account all children of nursery age of female workers of their enterprise. Nurseries take the initiative in expanding and further developing the nursery network for children of female workers of their enterprise, attracting to this the entire OMM organization and raising this question before the factory organizations. Nurseries strive for the allocation of necessary living space for the expansion of the nursery network when carrying out the construction of worker housing for workers of enterprises, during the expansion and reconstruction of the enterprise. Nurseries strive for the allocation of funds by the factory administration and factory organizations for the expansion of the nursery network for serving female workers of enterprises. Nurseries should actively participate in working out the control figures and the industrial financial plan of the enterprise, raising issues related to the consolidation and further growth of female labor at the enterprise, striving for the implementation of necessary measures. When involving new contingents of female labor force, nurseries carry out work on developing the nursery network for their service. When organizing at the enterprise courses for improving the qualifications of female workers, nurseries adapt their work to serving female workers during their study time. Nurseries pay special attention to serving the Stakhanovites of shock shops, brigades and individual shock-worker female workers. Children of Stakhanovite female workers and shock workers should be admitted to nurseries in the first place. Along with this, the attention of nurseries should also be focused on the 'breakthroughs' and lagging shops. Together with the health points and the group for assisting health care, nurseries clarify the reasons for breakthroughs and absences among female workers, outline a number of measures to eliminate them. One of the very frequent and significant reasons for absences among female workers is the poor organization and organization of work of the nurseries themselves. In particular, the morbidity of children in nurseries, especially infectious diseases, is one of the significant reasons for absences among female workers. The struggle to reduce morbidity among children in nurseries is therefore one of the most important elements of work in the struggle for fulfilling the industrial financial plan. For this purpose, nurseries should organize the care of nursery children for a number of diseases, for which isolation wards should be organized at the nurseries. (By Circular of the People's Commissariat of Health of March 7, 1932, No. 32, all local authorities were instructed in every new nursery building to provide space for an isolation ward at the rate of 10% of all nursery beds and to allocate such space in existing nurseries.) Children with droplet infections and infections transmitted by contact are sent to the isolation ward. They should be filled with children with influenza diseases in their acute stage, with suppurative skin diseases (pyoderma, furunculosis), with parasitic skin diseases (scabies, ringworm), with mild colitis, with infectious dyspepsias (non-toxic) and finally with an undetermined condition, not threatening with serious infections in its course. Children suffering from whooping cough may also be admitted. The first cases of infectious diseases—measles, rubella, and mumps—should be kept at home. If the isolation ward is planned in such a way that it can be clearly divided into two isolated parts, then when 2-3 children are simultaneously ill with one of these infections, they can be admitted to one of the parts of the isolation ward. When the disease spreads to a large number of children, they should be admitted to a room of one of the children's groups having a separate entrance to the reception room. Special attention is paid to biological methods of fighting infections, through conducting active immunization against scarlet fever and diphtheria, as well as the widespread organization of anti-measles vaccinations. Nurseries organize around themselves an active group from among the members of the shop groups for assisting health care, workers of the socio-domestic sector of the factory committee, delegates, who are involved in all the work of the nursery. When the organs for the protection of motherhood and infancy embarked on the path of broad attraction of initiative and activity of the working masses to the cause of collective child-rearing, it was necessary to organize this initiative, to more closely tie the workers with the life of the institution serving their children; for this purpose, nursery councils were created at nurseries. The involvement of a new mass of women-housewives in socialist construction, begun on the initiative of engineers and technicians of heavy industry, created a new powerful active force of Soviet public opinion, the initiative and energy of which was first directed toward improving children's institutions, including nurseries. The decision of the XVI Congress of the VKP(b) that 'in all plans for new construction, the construction of housing, cultural and socio-domestic institutions (dining rooms, clubs, nurseries, laundries, baths, etc.) must necessarily be provided for, first of all in the most important industrial factory districts,' as well as the decision of the June plenum of the CC VKP(b) of 1931 on communal construction, on strengthening the cultural-domestic service of workers, created new exceptionally favorable conditions for the development of nurseries. The improvement of cities, housing construction, which are widely included in the control figures and plans of capital investments starting from 1932, is accompanied by the construction of nurseries. The Party attaches enormous importance to the issues of rebuilding life on new socialist principles, and the work on the protection of motherhood and infancy is one of the most important moments of this rebuilding, since through the institutions for the protection of motherhood and infancy, the socialization of the functions of upbringing and the liberation of the female worker and collective farm woman from them takes place first of all. The words of Comrade Stalin at the XVI Party Congress: 'To raise a new generation of workers, healthy and cheerful, capable of raising the power of the Soviet country to the proper height and to defend it with their chests from the encroachments of enemies,' also apply to the organs for the protection of motherhood and infancy. The rebuilding of life on new socialist principles presupposes first of all the mass growth of institutions for the protection of motherhood and infancy, first of all nurseries. Nurseries should cover millions of children and cover them with high-quality service. To fulfill this task, to raise the work to a new higher level, the organs for the protection of motherhood and infancy must be able to mobilize around their work the broad masses of workers of the Soviet Union, to attract to nursery construction public organizations, first of all trade unions, cooperatives, to include in this work the economic organs, equally interested in serving the female proletariat, in raising labor productivity, in the cultural-domestic service of the working family. This acquires special significance now, after the law of June 28, 1936, which has set before the organs for the protection of motherhood and infancy a grand program for the development of institutions serving mother and child, first of all nurseries. The increase in the birth rate, the growth of the child population will require from the OMM organs enormous efforts and a sharp increase in the quantitative and especially qualitative growth of nurseries. Nurseries in rural areas were organized by the zemstvos during the summer field work, but these were individual institutions, having negligible significance from the point of view of cultural-domestic service of the peasantry and a negligible share from the point of view of easing the working conditions of peasant women. With the October Revolution, along with the development of work on the protection of motherhood and infancy, nurseries firmly entered into the new life of the village. But until 1929, a mass coverage of children was not achieved: nurseries were seasonal, the work of nurseries was timed only to the sowing and harvesting campaigns, they were only partially and weakly placed at the service of fulfilling production tasks in agriculture. When collectivization covered the peasantry with a powerful stream, the significance of nurseries in the production service of the collective farm woman sharply increased, and a new form of nursery was put forward—permanent nurseries in sovkhozes and collective farms. First of all, sovkhozes with mass use of female labor (sugar beet, livestock, vegetable, garden, cotton-growing, etc.) are served by permanent nurseries. In the summer time, permanent nurseries organize as their branch for permanent and seasonal workers of the sovkhoz mobile field nurseries, which follow the brigades. The organization of labor migration due to the surplus of labor force and the full involvement of collective farm women in the work of the collective farm especially sharply raised the question of developing the network of permanent nurseries in the socialist sector of the village. Base nurseries with a sister-instructor at them in a collective farm became a support point for developing in the collective farm all measures and institutions for the protection of motherhood and infancy. Base nurseries are organized in the center of the collective farm.

They serve permanent staff workers of the collective farm, collective farm women engaged in various enterprises of the collective farm, in mechanized branches of agriculture, activists and public figures. The instructor nurse at the base Nurseries organizes the training of nurses for seasonal Nurseries at the base collective farm Nurseries with the participation of personnel from the consultation, medical area, and obstetric point; keeps a record of all workers of seasonal Nurseries, using them in the winter as an active force for carrying out various measures for the protection of motherhood and infancy in individual brigades; organizes the dispatch of nursery workers who have received training at base Nurseries for retraining in regional and provincial centers. At the base Nurseries, solid and soft equipment is stored for the deployment of field Nurseries. During the weeding and harvesting campaigns, field Nurseries for infants are organized in close proximity to the work areas of the collective farm women. Base Nurseries transfer a certain bed fund to the seasonal brigade Nurseries in a formed state for deployment as requested by the brigade leader in the designated areas of field Nurseries. Their organization has an extremely flexible operational character (mobility, transfer to the area with the largest concentration of mothers, the number of beds expands and contracts depending on the mothers going to work, etc.). If it is impossible to organize field Nurseries, the instructor nurse of the base Nurseries organizes the delivery of infants from the nearest stationary Nurseries to the field for feeding by mothers. During the harvesting campaign, when maximum use of all the labor force of the collective farm is required, an additional certain number of nursery groups is organized, with the aim of covering all children of the brigade with nursery service. Seasonal brigade Nurseries take these groups under their supervision, organizing their supply with food and the most necessary equipment. Thus, in a large collective farm at the height of field work, there is a whole network of Nurseries: base Nurseries in the center of the collective farm, seasonal Nurseries and nursery groups in the brigades, field Nurseries in the brigades, in remote areas of field work. Medical care for the child population of infancy and early age, both organized in Nurseries and nursery groups, and unorganized, is provided by children's consultations and medical personnel of the medical area and obstetric points. Table 3. Permanent nurseries in state farms and collective farms. On 1/1 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 164 2 145 313 4 534 3 392 99 728 8170 212 836 11590 £87 958 14 000 349 113 g. The number of children in seasonal Nurseries on 1/1 1929 was 141 306; 1930 - 174 695; 1931 - 430425; 1932 - 1 352 915; 1933 - 2 214 821; 1934 - 2 809 700; 1935 - 3 194 900. By decree of the USSR Council of People's Commissars of 28/VI 1936, marking a truly Stalinist concern for mother and child, the network of nursery beds in rural areas is doubled by 1/1 1939, as well as in cities, and increases by 500 thousand in permanent Nurseries and by 4 million in seasonal Nurseries. The leading type of Nurseries in the rural sector in the second five-year plan are permanent Nurseries of extended day. Along with this, seasonal Nurseries have become widespread. Field Nurseries for infants have been widely developed, organized near the place of work of mothers. In both permanent and seasonal Nurseries, round-the-clock groups of children are distinguished. Order of work of nurseries. Nurseries are organized and are part of the health care system system. Children of working women, employees, students, military personnel, and cooperative artisans are admitted to nurseries from 2 months to 3 years old. Service of children in Nurseries is carried out both at the place of work and at the place of residence of parents. In accordance with this, nurseries are organized in workers' settlements, districts, in areas of the city. The order of admission to Nurseries of various groups of workers is established by the People's Commissariat of Health together with the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions. Admission of children to Nurseries is carried out by the heads of nurseries on the recommendation of socio-domestic sectors of factory committees in Nurseries serving certain industries, and on the recommendation of the consultation - in other Nurseries. Nurseries must be provided with medical supervision. The rules of internal order and the organization of the routine of Nurseries have been developed by the State Scientific Institute of MCH in Moscow. Personnel. At the head of the Nurseries stands the head, who bears full responsibility for all the work of the Nurseries. The head of the Nurseries is appointed by the Administration of MCH of the Health Department from among: workers of the enterprise, activist housewives, workers of nurseries who have proven themselves as good administrators, nursery doctors. Heads appointed from persons without special training must during their work go through courses for heads of nurseries. The head of the Nurseries admits children to the nursery in accordance with the instructions of the People's Commissariat of Health; takes measures to ensure the Nurseries with nutrition, equipment, medicines, etc.; admits and dismisses personnel in accordance with the Labor Code and imposes penalties for failure to perform official duties or failure to comply with the orders of the head of the nursery; is the disposer of credits allocated to nurseries and is responsible for their proper expenditure; maintains the connection of the Nurseries with production and organizes mass work of the Nurseries. The doctor of the Nurseries bears responsibility for all medical-pedagogical work of the Nurseries. The doctor monitors the health status of children in the Nurseries, conducts periodic examinations of children, keeps records in the development history, provides medical assistance to the isolation ward of the Nurseries, visits acutely ill nursery children for the first time to determine the diagnosis and systematically treats at home sick children of the nurseries living in the area of the Nurseries; carries out all measures to combat infections and health improvement measures; develops a routine for all groups of children, according to age characteristics; develops menus and food distribution and approves samples of furniture, linen and clothing when purchasing equipment; supervises the work of all personnel in the care and upbringing of children; together with the head of the nursery carries out work in production and mass work among the population; carries out systematic work with personnel to improve their qualifications and sanitary-educational work among mothers. Appointment and dismissal of the doctor is carried out directly by the Administration of MCH of the health department.

t,-. The instructor nurse is directly subordinate to the doctor and is his closest assistant in all medical-pedagogical questions; carries out all orders of the doctor concerning nutrition, care and treatment of children, and monitors the sanitary condition of the institution; together with the doctor develops a routine for each group, a plan of pedagogical work, play and work routine and supervises its implementation; conducts daily admission of children; in accordance with the general instructions of the doctor, supervises the work of all nurses in the care and upbringing of children through systematic meetings, observation of the work of each group, practical demonstration of work. In all incidents (all kinds of accidents with children), takes measures, provides emergency assistance and immediately informs the doctor; monitors the preparation of children's food and the feeding of children; makes requests for portions, various items for care, treatment of children and upbringing of children with submission of these requests for the doctor's signature; manages the institution's first-aid kit and medical equipment; carries out sanitary-educational work in the institution on the instructions and under the supervision of the doctor, keeps medical records under the supervision of the doctor. Sisters-educators are directly subordinate to the instructor nurse. The duties of the sisters-educators include all care and upbringing of children: the sisters implement all principles of sanitary routine and medical orders under the supervision of the instructor nurse; weigh and measure children; organize games; conduct group and individual organized activities with children, walks; keep daily records of pedagogical work and physical condition of children. Sisters monitor the order and sanitary condition of children's rooms (cleanliness of premises, equipment, linen, ventilation of premises); monitor the health status of children and immediately inform the instructor nurse of any illness or injury to the child, and in her absence - the doctor. Sisters-educators are required to periodically improve their qualifications on courses for advanced training and retraining, ei

The nursery is organized by the health department. The nanny is directly subordinate to the group sisters-educators and helps the sisters in caring for the children¹. Following the sister's instructions, she dresses, feeds the children, helps with bathing, walks, etc., cleans the room of her group and is responsible for the cleanliness of the premises and all items in it; She gives dirty and receives clean¹ linen, brings food from the kitchen, and washes the dishes of her group. The number of staff depends on the capacity and type of nursery and is established according to the following calculation: one physician per 100 children, if he does not manage the nursery, one instructor nurse per 50 children, one educator nurse and one nanny per 18 children at any given time of operation; administrative and household staff¹ is established according to accepted norms. In daily groups, one nurse and^: one nanny may remain on duty for two groups of children at night. Nurseries take measures to improve the qualifications of the staff by sending nurses and nannies on mandatory courses for improving qualifications and retraining and by organizing systematic planned work with the staff¹ within the nursery (on issues of care and education of young children). The nursery staff is required to complete and pass the established technical minimum without leaving production. The work of the nursery is organized on the basis of socialist forms of labor. Nurseries widely introduce methods of socialist competition, shock work, and the brigade method into the work of the staff. Nurses and nannies are attached for a long period of time to a specific group of children, forming a brigade of that group; within the brigade, a nurse and a nanny are attached to each other. Nurseries must be provided with sufficient amount of play material and educational aids. Nurseries must ensure proper nutrition for children according to their age and health condition. The nutrition of each child is carried out according to the prescription of the physician. Menus and food distribution are approved by the physician. To improve the supply of provisions, nurseries organize auxiliary farms (dairy farms, vegetable gardens, poultry farms, etc.), either separate for individual nurseries, for a group of nurseries, or together with the enterprises they serve. Organization of the routine. Each child entering the nursery is preliminarily examined by the nursery physician or consultation and is examined at home by the district nurse of the nursery. Children with infectious diseases are not admitted to nurseries. The hours of daily reception and distribution of children are strictly fixed and established depending on the type of nursery (tables 4-6): In shift groups, a clear distribution of shifts must be established. Children of mothers working the night shift may remain in the nursery for the entire work week, but they must be taken home* on the mother's day off. For proper organization of work, children in the nursery are divided into groups of no more than 18 people, according to age and psycho-physical development. The number of children in a nursery may vary; depending on the needs of the nursery, there may be 36, 54, 80, 120 and^: 180 beds. To serve small collectives, nurseries can be organized in one or two groups (36-54 people); these nurseries operate as branches of larger nearby¹ nurseries. Children are transferred from group to group periodically and in groups of 3-4 people, not individually. Children over three years of age are transferred in an organized manner to a kindergarten, for which nurseries must be attached to a specific kindergarten, maintain systematic communication with it, and coordinate the work plan of the older group with the work plan of the younger group of the kindergarten. The main measure to combat childhood illness is the strengthening and increase of the resistance of the child's organism through the organization of hygienic routine and proper care of children. Nurseries should widely use all health-improving measures: maximum time outdoors in winter and summer, wide use of baths and showers, taking children out of town or¹ to a garden in summer. In the nursery, careful observation of the health status of children is carried out through systematic medical examination and periodic weighing. A child who is acutely ill should not be brought to the nursery, but is visited at home by a physician on the same day. A child who has not attended the nursery for an unknown reason is visited by the district nurse of the nursery no later than the next day. A child from daily groups is not released home if there is an infectious disease in the home. Construction standards for nurseries OST of the All-Union Council on Affairs of Communal Economy under the CIK USSR (approved 29/V 1935; implementation date - 15/X 1935). § 3. By capacity, nurseries can be set up for 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 9 groups of children, i.e., for 36, 54, 80, 120 and 180 children with the mandatory addition of 10-12% of the specified number for the isolation ward.-§ 4. By age in nurseries set up for children of different nursery ages, the following distribution of groups is adopted: a) with two groups - 1 junior and 1 senior group; b) with three groups - 1 group for infants and crawlers and 2 senior groups; c) with four groups - 1 group for infants, 1 group for crawlers and 2 senior groups; d) with five groups - 1 group for infants, 1 for crawlers and 3 senior groups; e) with six groups - 1 group for infants, 1 for crawlers and 4 senior groups; f) with eight groups - 1 group for infants, 2 for crawlers and 5 senior groups; g) with nine groups - 2 groups for infants, 2 for crawlers and 5 senior groups. [Note: 1. At enterprises, nurseries are limited to 54 beds exclusively for infants (including isolation beds)].-§ 21. The nursery building should not be more than 2 stories high, [Note: 1. As an exception, in conditions of a congested urban site, the construction of a three-story fire-resistant or non-combustible building for nurseries is permitted with special permission in each case from the People's Commissariat of Health; in three-story buildings, verandas must be fire-resistant or non-combustible. 2. The device of basements and semi-basements in nursery buildings is permitted only for placing: in the basement - a boiler room with a fuel storage for central heating and in the semi-basement - a kitchen with auxiliary premises and a laundry].-§ 25. The above-ground approximate cubic capacity of stone nursery buildings, not counting verandas and service buildings (icehouse, cellar, laundry, etc.), is taken as 65-70 m³ per 1 child.-§ 31. The size of the land plot is determined at a rate of not less than 60 m² per 1 child; for the smallest nurseries (for 30 children), the area of the plot should be not less than 0.3 ha. [Note: for nurseries for infants set up at enterprises, the size of the land plot is determined at a rate of not less than 30 m² per 1 child, but in any case the plot should be not less than 0.2 ha].-§ 38. The height of rooms in nurseries is 3.5 m. Connection with the consultation. For better service of children, nurseries establish close systematic connection with the consultation: the consultation provides home service for sick nursery children living outside the nursery area; the consultation provides the nursery with qualified medical assistance; the consultation and nursery mutually report cases of acute^- infectious diseases; the consultation and nursery carry out mass work together according to a unified plan. In connection with the fact that the nursery must be covered almost entirely by all the child population of the Union with the improvement of service quality and the development of a whole range of health-improving measures and preventive measures against infections, nurseries in the second five-year plan^b Table 4. Sample routine in nurseries for children from 8 to 6 months. i № of routine | time spent in the nursery Reception Feeding Wakefulness Toilet Laying down Sleep Feeding Wakefulness^vi" Feeding Wakefulness Sleep Feeding Night distribution 11-1 1-11/2 11-1 1-11/j 11-1 1-11/₂ 11-1 1-11/2 and-l 1-ц/, lVa-3 И/2-3 И/2-tS И/a-3 IV»-s и_г-з 3-41/2 ': 8-41/« .8-41/a : 8-41/2 ' 41/a-Б 41/a-б .41/2-5 41/2-6 4i/a-6 5-7 5-7 5-7 8 8 Up to 11 10-11 '' - 7-8 - .41/2-^5 - ' ,2-3 , - 1 41/a-Б Up to 11 | 10-11 Table 5. Sample routine in nurseries for children from 6 to 9 months. № of routine Time spent in nursery in hours Reception Feeding Wakefulness Toilet Laying down Sleep Feeding ( 1 | 16 2 1 14 3 1 11 4 1 8 5 j 8 в | 8 6-71/2 6-71/a 0-7'/a B-71/_a S-81/₂Д1/2-2 6-61/a в-ei/j 7-71/2 7-71/a 6-r.i/a . Bi/j-7'/, 6i/a-7i/a 61/2-71/a 61/a-7Va 7V«-8»/< 7V2-8'/i 71/2-81/4 71/2-81/4 8I/4-8I/2 ., 81/J-81/2 aVi-8V« 81/4-81/1 81/j-10 8» /a-10 81/a-10 81/a-Ю 8Va-W . 10-101/, 10-10i/a 10-101/a 10-101/a 10-101/a Wakefulness Sleep Feeding Wakefulness

Feeding Wakefulness-1 Sleep Night feeding Distribution 101/2-12 12-2 101/2-12 12-2 101/2-12 12-2 101/2-12 12-2 2-21/2 2-21/2 2-21/2 2-21/2 2-21/2 2-21/2 21/2-4 21/2-1 21/2-4 21/2-4 21/2-4 4-51/2 4-51/2 4-51/2 6-7 6-7 6-7 6-7 8-9/2 9/2-2 7-70/4 7-73/4 7-73/4 7-73/4 7-73/4 73/4-81/4 7³/4-81/₂ 7³/4-9¹/2 73/4-81/2 73/4-81/2 81/4-83/4 81/4-83/4 81/4-83/4 81/4-83/4 81/4-83/4 81/2-11 81/2-11 81/2-11 81/2-11 81/2-11 11-111/2 11-111/2 11-111/2 11-111/2 11-111/2 11-121/2 11/2-121/4 11/2-121/4 121/4-121/4 121/4-121/4 121/4-121/4 121/4-121/4 121/4-121/4 Getting up and laying down Sleep Getting up and laying down Feeding Wakefulness Feeding Laying down and getting up Night sleep Distribution 1-11/2 1-11/2 1-11/2 1-11/2 1-11/2 1-11/2 11/2-21/4 11/2-21/4 11/2-21/4 11/2-21/4 11/2-21/4 11/2-21/4 21/4-31/4 21/4-31/4 21/4-31/4 21/4-31/4 21/4-31/4 21/4-31/4 3-31/2 3-31/2 3-31/2 3-31/2 3-31/2 31/2-6 31/2-6 31/2-6 31/2-6 31/2-6 31/2-6 6-61/2 6-61/2 6-61/2 61/2-7 61/2-7 63/4 10-11 71/2-8 41/2-5 2-21/2 41/2-5 10-11 in the crib become a powerful factor in reducing childhood morbidity and mortality. By raising young children in the conditions outlined in the second five-year plan, the organs for motherhood and infancy create the necessary basis for the growth and upbringing of a generation 'capable of participating in communist labor... accustomed to working for the common good and with a conscious (turned into a habit) attitude toward the need to work for the common good', a generation for whom 'communist labor is the first vital need, the need of a healthy organism', as Lenin said.

V. Lebedeva. JASPERS Karl (Carl Jaspers; b. 1883), German psychopathologist and philosopher, founder of the phenomenological school in psychiatry. After graduating from the university, he worked at the Heidelberg psychiatric clinic. Even with his dissertation 'Homesickness and Crime' (1909), he attracted attention, and with the book on general psychopathology published soon after, he began a completely new era of psychopathological research, demanding a strict review and precise definition of the concepts used in psychopathology based on the description and analysis of the actual experiences of mental patients. The book made a tremendous impression and attracted numerous followers to the author. Jaspers' last psychopathological work was the pathographic study 'Strindberg and Van Gogh' (1919). Since 1921, J. has held the chair of philosophy at the Heidelberg University and has ceased work in the field of psychopathology. Of his philosophical works, the largest are the book on worldviews and the two-volume study 'System of Philosophy'. In his philosophical views, J. is an unapologetic idealist.