Agricultural Labor

AGRICULTURAL LABOR. Hygiene of agricultural labor. The socialist reconstruction of agriculture on the basis of its broad mechanization, carried out in the USSR during the first five-year plan, has completely changed the conditions of agricultural labor. 224,5 thousand collective farms, 2,862 MTS (Machine and Tractor Stations), 10.8 thousand state farms, which have a powerful technical base, create a new environment for rural labor. In mechanized agriculture, the boundaries between urban labor and rural labor in its old understanding gradually blur. In the new forms of agricultural labor, along with elements characteristic of the rural working environment (work in the open air), there appear a number of moments specific to industrial labor. In the second five-year plan, the basic mechanization of agriculture is planned to be completed (in 1937 tractor plowing should constitute 80%, machine harvesting 60%, and mechanized threshing 100%). As a result of the second five-year plan, 'in its social form, agriculture becomes identical to industry, and agricultural labor is transformed into a variety of industrial labor' (theses of Comrades Molotov and Kuibyshev to the XVII Congress). The creation of large-scale mechanized socialist agriculture, its technical re-equipment, pose anew the question of the hygiene of agricultural labor. In this context, the design of types of agricultural machines that meet hygienic requirements acquires enormous importance. Grain farming. Labor in grain farming is extremely diverse (plowing, harrowing, sowing, reaping, stacking, threshing). Seasonality plays a significant role in this. A specific factor in grain farming is the meteorological factor. Solar radiation, atmospheric precipitation, winds, etc. directly affect workers in the field. The main machines of grain farming are the tractor, combine harvester, thresher, binder, seeder, plow. The tractor is one of the most important agricultural machines, and the tractor operator represents the key profession of mechanized agriculture. The hygienic working conditions of the tractor operator are largely determined by the type of tractor. The tractors currently in use are wheel tractors of various makes (STZ, KhTZ, etc.) and power, and caterpillar tractors ('Stalinetz', 'Caterpillar'). The design features of the tractor significantly affect the working conditions of the tractor operator. The excellent management in each type of tractor requires different expenditure of muscular energy, etc. Therefore, when hygienically evaluating the labor of a tractor operator, labor on different systems of machines should be differentiated. The second factor determining the working conditions of the tractor operator is the type of agricultural work. The tractor operator is engaged in all stages of the production process in grain farming. In addition, he has to transport cargo, which should be identified as a separate type of work on the tractor. Finally, the third circumstance affecting the nature of work on a tractor is the presence of one or another hitched implement. The type of tractor, type of work, hitched implement determine the labor load of the tractor operator and the hygienic working conditions. The labor load of the tractor operator (steerer) consists of: inspection of the tractor (checking the presence of fuel, water, oil), refueling (sometimes performed by a special person), manual or automatic starting, minor repair on the move, and finally steering itself (driving). Manual starting often requires heavy physical exertion and is performed on average 8-9 times per working day when plowing and 11-12 times during harvesting. The number of movements with control levers that the tractor operator has to make is expressed in the following figures: when plowing with a 'Caterpillar 48/60' - 4 movements per minute, when reaping and picking up cut grain with a combine on a 'Caterpillar 20/25' - 4-5-6 movements per minute. A photograph of the tractor operator's working day during plowing shows a significantly condensed working day: steering and other types of work exceed 90% of working time. - Among the separate occupational hazards of the external environment with which the tractor operator has to deal, it is necessary to point out dust. The sources of dust formation lie both in the tractor itself and in the hitched implement. During harrowing and plowing, soil dust (mineral dust) is raised. During harvesting with a combine, a significant amount of organic dust is formed (see Dust). The strength and direction of the wind are of great importance in the dusting of the tractor operator. In some cases, the tractor operator has to work in a dense cloud of dust that penetrates through special clothing, dirties and clogs the skin pores. Weight determinations of dust when sampling with a dust tube with a cotton filter give from 100 to 200 mg per 1 m³ of air. The number of dust particles in 1 cm³ when taking a sample with an Owens counter often exceeds 1,000 dust particles. The next factor to which tractor operators are exposed is carbon monoxide. The amount of CO in the exhaust gases of the tractor varies depending on a number of conditions, with the most important factor being the composition and quality of the fuel. Tractors operate on kerosene, ligroin, and low-grade gasoline. Incomplete combustion of fuel and the resulting formation of carbon monoxide depend on the design features of the engine, its condition, the perfect coordination of parts during operation, the number of motor revolutions, and a number of other reasons. The design features of the tractor, namely the location of the exhaust pipe outlet, determine the degree of action of exhaust gases on the tractor operator. In tractors of the 'International' type, the exhaust pipe is located in the lower part of the machine, slightly to the side of the tractor operator's workplace. This is an extremely hygienically disadvantageous position, because with the appropriate direction of the wind, the tractor operator is in the sphere of action of the gas. Analysis of the air in the breathing zone of the tractor operator often shows high concentrations of carbon monoxide (tenths of a mg per 1 liter). When starting the tractor, when adjusting it, the tractor operator has to be in the sphere of even higher concentrations. The small number and mild degree of observed poisonings depend on specific moments of the production environment, mainly the frequent change in the direction and strength of the wind. - An extremely negative factor is the significant noise when the tractor is operating. The noise is so great that it almost eliminates the possibility of conversation even when standing next to the tractor operator. Along with the noise, there is significant vibration, especially during plowing and harrowing. - Among other moments related to the working conditions of the tractor operator, it is necessary to point out the design of the seat. On a number of tractor models, the seats have significant shortcomings. Thus, on the large 'Caterpillar', the seat is located quite far from the control levers, and when driving, the tractor operator has difficulty using the backrest. There is no backrest support on the 'International' at all. In addition, the seat on this type of machine has a number of other defects: it is metal, not covered with anything, not customized to height, and does not spring much. - The influence of meteorological factors is also reflected in the tractor operator to a high degree. By the nature of his work, he is exposed to spring bad weather, summer heat, and autumn frosts. In transportation, the tractor operator works in winter as well. All of the above highlights the need for a series of health measures to improve working conditions when operating a tractor. An important moment is the transition to automatic starting of tractors. To combat the effect of exhaust gases, it is necessary to redesign exhaust pipes, diverting them away from the tractor operator's seat. As protection from sun rays, it is possible to recommend equipping tractors with a cover (canopy) over the seat. Protection from dust can be a closed cabin on the tractor. It should be designed with sliding (removable) walls. The seat should be completely redesigned to eliminate the noted defects. Already produced tractors should be equipped with felt linings or leather cushions. A series of health measures for work on tractors (seat, lighting, removal of exhaust gases, special clothing) has been developed by the Institute of Labor Protection and the Institute of Hygiene and Industrial Sanitation and taken into account in the design of tractors produced by Soviet factories. The second leading profession of mechanized agriculture is the combine harvester operator with his assistant, the steersman. The combine, or reaper-thresher, represents the combination into one mechanism of a reaper and a thresher, driven by the combine's own motor. The combine operator is in motion for a significant time. He moves around on the moving combine, thereby risking falling. When the combine is working well, the combine operator's functions are mainly observational. The steersman is the direct assistant to the combine operator. During the movement of the combine, he is on the bridge and, by turning the steering wheel, raises or lowers the so-called header. When an object that could damage the thresher gets on the conveyor, the steersman stops its operation. His vision and attention are quite strained, because a delay in turning the steering wheel can lead to serious damage.

At stops, the operator lubricates the moving parts. The harvesting brigade is in somewhat better conditions than other groups of agricultural workers, since on rainy days, harvesting with a combine is not performed. However, the effect of solar radiation is extremely strong, especially in the southern regions. The dustiness when working on a combine is similar to that on a tractor. Some production moments are associated with particularly strong dustiness, for example, inspecting sieves, etc. Sources of dust formation are the tractor, the combine's wheels, and its threshing part. The amount of mineral dust is usually somewhat less than when working with a tractor, but the amount of organic dust is higher. The combine's engine is the cause of the presence of carbon monoxide in the inhaled air. Samples taken give, under different production and atmospheric conditions, hundredths (rarely tenths) of milligrams per 1 liter. In terms of inhaling carbon monoxide, the operator is in less favorable conditions than the combine operator, since he remains on the platform for a considerable time quite close to the exhaust pipe. Health measures on the combine are necessary first of all in organizing the workplace. Some machine models do not have a seat for the operator. It is necessary to arrange a seat, preferably with a backrest. To protect from the scorching rays of the sun, a canvas awning should be placed over the platform. The exhaust pipe *z of the combine's engine should be as far as possible from the operator's platform. To protect from dust, workers - tractor driver, combine operator, and operator - should wear a special closed overall, goggles (conserves), and a wide-brimmed hat of light material. A large group of agricultural workers is engaged in threshing. There are various types of threshers, working on horse and mechanical drive. Steam engine - locomobile - was widely used before, and now tractor thresher is being rapidly introduced. A number of operations, such as: pitching sheaves onto the thresher table with forks, carrying off chaff and grain, require considerable physical exertion. The work of the thresher operator, on whose skill the productivity of the thresher mainly depends, requires tension of attention, considerable dexterity and skill. This profession is one of the most responsible during threshing. The most serious occupational hazard when working at a thresher is the colossal dustiness. The groups of workers sorting straw and chaff suffer most from dust. The thresher operator is also subject to heavy dusting. Analyses carried out gave over 500 mg of dust per 1 m³. The dust formed due to the impact action of the drum and subsequent operations - sifting, etc. - is released from all openings of the thresher. The threshing floor, stacks, etc. around the thresher are covered with dust, so that when moving, dust rises and hangs in the air. Hygienic conditions and the working environment of workers on livestock farms depend on the level of mechanization of the main production processes. Wide mechanization of feeding, watering, haymaking, chemicalization in feed preparation raise livestock farms to the level of the latest technically equipped productions. Among the professions of livestock farming, a significant group of mechanics and electricians appears, but manual labor at present is still predominant. Labor in livestock farming is divided into two parts: feed production and operation and care for animals. A significant difference in labor expenditure depends on the methods of keeping livestock tied up or free-range. Work on herd operation occupies a significant place in dairy farming, and milking accounts for up to half of all labor costs. Among the worker groups, the first place belongs to milkmaids. With manual milking, this work is brought to high limits of skill. The number of movements per minute averages 180 for a milkmaid, and during a working day with a norm of 8-9 cows, according to Ryazanov, up to 27 thousand movements are made by both hands. Therefore, milkmaids may tendovaginitis and arthritis, mainly in the wrist joint. In milkmaids, and sometimes in tractor drivers, flexion contractures of the fingers are also noted, and in the latter, in addition to the flexed position of the fingers when holding the steering wheel, chronic trauma to the palm from tractor jolts is also significant. Recently, machine milking has been introduced, which gives up to 40% labor savings and eliminates the heavy labor of the milkmaid. Hygienic issues arise especially in connection with cleaning animals and their premises, as well as when assisting in calving, etc. Mechanization of manure cleaning has great hygienic significance. Watering labor is significantly facilitated by the installation of water pipes with automatic drinkers. Personal hygiene measures become very important, especially for milkmaids, shepherds, etc., who have direct contact with animals. The production processes in sheep farming are very diverse. These include feeding, grouping of herds, selection of animals, mating, lambing, grazing, shearing, bathing, etc. Professional groups are composed of workers for grazing and care for animals - shepherds, etc., and workers on special jobs, such as shearers. Shearing work is mainly done manually, and a significant amount of dust is released. The work is associated with great physical exertion, as it is necessary to lift, turn over and hold the animal. Cleaning and packing of wool and clippings (pieces of wool), as well as shearing, are associated with significant contamination with manure, dirt, etc. As hygienic measures, rationalization of the workplace during shearing, installation of a holder for holding the sheep, individualization of scissors depending on the palm perimeter of shearers can be proposed. In addition, it is necessary to implement general measures - ventilation, lighting in sheepfolds and other production premises. The next section of livestock farming is horse breeding. Two types are distinguished - herd and stable horse breeding. Technical and garden crops. Among fiber plants, flax is most widespread. Harvesting and primary processing of flax is an extremely labor-intensive process. Pulling (harvesting) flax, done manually, requires up to 20 man-days per 1 hectare. At present, a number of machines for pulling (flax puller 'Komsomolka' and others) have been created, used mainly for long-stemmed flax. Low-stemmed flax-kudryash is more convenient to mow. The second harvesting operation is drying the stems, then immediately comes scutching, i.e., separation of seed heads from stems. The following operations concern processing the stem. The stem undergoes retting, drying, breaking and scutching, resulting in fiber suitable for spinning. Three-roller and improved multi-roller flax breakers are quite common in flax processing. The working conditions of a crew working on a breaker are similar to those of a crew on a thresher. The main worker is the feeder, who handfuls of straw (stems) into the rollers. Hygienic attention deserves retting, during which the worker has to be in water for a long time. Growing garden crops is associated with a number of production processes - hilling, earthing up, etc., which are also of interest from the point of view of labor hygiene. Soil loosening and weed removal are usually done manually, with a so-called hoe being used as a tool. The number of lifts and lowers of the hoe reaches 40-55 per 1 minute. The work is done while walking, and 350-450 meters are covered in an hour. The body position during hilling also has hygienic significance. Often the body is bent in the lumbar region and hip joint and sometimes forms almost a right angle. The introduction of cultivators, driven by horse or mechanical traction, in a number of cases (row crops - sunflower, corn, etc.) replaces heavy manual labor. Fight against traumatism. One of the most important problems of labor hygiene in agriculture is the fight against traumatism. The first agricultural machines were imported from abroad (John Deere tractors, Case, Oliver combine, etc.), where issues of labor protection and worker safety were not given sufficient attention. Therefore, the very design of the machines contained the possibility of injury. One of the main causes of injuries occurring in agriculture is the weak technical training and insufficient familiarity of workers with the machines they operate. Tens and hundreds of thousands of current tractor drivers, combine operators, etc., were very recently farm laborers who had no idea about machines and mechanisms. Insufficient instruction in the absence of sufficient experience plays a very large role in agricultural traumatism. Insufficiently careful selection in appropriate schools is also of no small importance, as well as defects in labor organization. All the above points were of particular importance in the first years of the socialist reconstruction of agricultural labor. At present, a huge number of machines of Soviet design are operating in mechanized agriculture, in which the requirements of labor protection have already been taken into account. The introduction of new machines can give high figures of traumatism only until the technique is mastered and mastered by the main mass of workers.

Agricultural labor injuries can be divided into several groups: injuries from working with machines; injuries from agricultural implements; injuries caused by animals. Thus, of the 1,551 injuries registered in the Western Region (V. Zikeev) during the first 6 months of 1931, 27.5% were from machines, 20.9% from agricultural implements, 17.9% from injuries caused by animals, 18.7% from auxiliary work, and the rest were accidental injuries. Injuries on various types of agricultural work. Tractors occupy a rather significant place in agricultural injuries. About 1/4 of traumatic cases occur when starting the tractor from the recoil of the starting handle and bruising when starting against adjacent parts of the tractor; this type of injury should almost completely disappear when special protective devices are introduced on newly released machines. When manually starting tractors without protective devices, it is necessary to follow safe starting rules. Precautions should also be taken with other starting methods: with a crowbar ('Caterpillar 48/60'), with a lever ('Oil Pull'), starting by the flywheel ('Holt' and others). About 10% of cases occur when uncoupling and coupling the tractor with towed implements. It is necessary to develop more rational types of coupling devices to eliminate injuries depending on the weakness and imperfection of the coupling. Injuries on combines do not significantly exceed injuries on tractors, since the combine contains a significant number of unprotected chains, gears, etc. The cutting part of the combine is also often a cause of injuries. Measures to combat injuries on combines must primarily focus on shielding moving and unprotected parts. To prevent slipping on the operator's platform and falling from it, it must be made ribbed and fenced with railings. The motor should be enclosed in a casing. The motor's starting handle, as with the tractor, should be equipped with a device against the recoil of the handle. Injuries often occur due to insufficiently clear signaling between the tractor and the combine. Injuries on threshers occupy a rather significant place in machine agricultural injuries. Thus, in the Western Region, out of 428 machine injuries in 1931, 147 cases were on threshers. In the pre-revolutionary period (data from Onchukov, Tezyakov, Klimenko), working at the thresher was the cause of 53-67% of all injuries in agriculture. In the most recent time, there has been some decrease in thresher injuries, which is associated with the correct organization of labor and safety measures used in large state farms and collective farms. The most dangerous operation in the primary processing of flax is the scutching of flax, which accounts for about 95% of all accidents. Most injuries occur on horse-drawn machines. More improved multi-axis flax breakers give a small number of injuries. The next group of agricultural injuries consists of injuries from working with agricultural implements (scythe, harrow, plow, fork, sickle). These are mainly cuts, wounds, and to a lesser extent bruises. A fairly large group of injuries is finally caused by animals. Agricultural injuries in the USSR show a clear tendency to decrease in recent years. Better organization of work, adoption of precautionary measures, etc., reduce the number of traumatic cases. More highly organized farms give the lowest figures. Thus, Machine and Tractor Stations (MTS), which have specially trained personnel, etc., do not have a single accident when working on flax breakers (Western region - data for 1931). With the complete coverage of agriculture by state farms and collective farms, when the latter are raised to a sufficient technical level and labor is clearly organized in them, agricultural injuries can be reduced to a minimum. Along with injuries, it is necessary to stop at some diseases that are to a certain degree specific to agriculture. Such a disease has long been indicated as actinomycosis (see). In field, garden, and garden work, skin irritations caused by various plants have been described. These include a number of weeds (wild parsnip, cow parsnip, yarrow, dog chamomile, popovnik, etc.) and some decorative plants (poison sumac, Japanese primrose, etc.). Livestock farming is also associated with a number of occupational diseases. The most dangerous of these are glanders (see), anthrax (see), and foot-and-mouth disease (see). In persons dealing with animals infected with erysipelas (or meat), so-called swine erysipelas (see) may be observed. Poisonings are possible when using chemical fertilizers, insecticides, and seed treatment. Two types of seed treatment are used - dry method and wet method. Dry treatment is carried out in drums where grain and the treating substance are poured in. When the drum rotates, the poison covers the seeds, destroying bunt (spores of a fungus). As seed dressings (fungicides), Paris green (containing up to 56% arsenic compounds and 44% copper salts), copper sulfate and dehydrated copper sulfate, chrome alum, and copper carbonate are used. The rotation of the drum causes large amounts of dust to enter the surrounding air, which can cause poisoning of workers. To combat plant pests, dusting with poisonous powders or spraying with poisonous solutions is carried out; to combat rodents, fumigation of burrows and poisoned baits are used. As poisons, in addition to those mentioned above, barium chloride and barium carbonate are used, from which baits for rodents are prepared, sublimate, used in solution for spraying, strychnine, nikodust, and cyanide compounds. Dusting and spraying of plants are done from special tanks placed on the worker's back. The work is associated with the danger of poisoning and requires careful observance of precautionary measures. The use of an airplane to combat pests is a very effective method, but is associated with significant dust emission during all preparatory operations. The pilot is also exposed to danger of poisoning due to the penetration of poison from aerial dust into the cabin, and the mechanic when repairing a machine covered with poisonous dust. Chemical fertilizers are usually used in powder form. When dispersed in the air, fertilizers get into the respiratory tract, on the mucous membranes of the eyes, etc. Opening, weighing, transporting, and spreading fertilizers can create significant dustiness. Superphosphate, phosphate flour, and Thomas slag are most commonly used. When they get into the respiratory tract, they cause inflammation of the mucous membranes. More dangerous are calcium cyanamide, ammonium sulfate, and calcium nitrate. When cyanamide is moistened, hydrocyanic acid may be released. On unprotected skin, cyanamide can cause irritation, redness, sores. Redness and rash can also appear from the action of calcium nitrate and ammonium sulfate. To combat the harmful effects of chemicals used in agriculture, it is necessary to observe a number of precautionary measures. It is necessary to wear a coverall made of dust-proof fabric, a helmet, gloves, and goggles. Special clothing should have a high collar and long sleeves. Wearing respirators is mandatory for all work where dust or poisonous vapors are emitted. Proper organization of work and their mechanization play a significant role in combating poisoning. Loading and unloading operations, mixing grain in drums, dusting and spraying, etc., can be mechanized. It is not permissible to treat grain on the ground, in open containers, and other primitive methods, as well as in closed premises - granaries, sheds, etc. It should be done in the open air, keeping to the leeward side. (See also Poisoning - occupational poisonings.) The widespread use of female labor in all areas of agriculture requires the rapid rationalization of agricultural machines and implements and the implementation of measures to facilitate labor on machines. The division of labor carried out in large farms creates the most favorable conditions for the widest introduction of female labor, since it is possible to exclude women from those areas of work that would create significant overload for them. Adolescent labor in the socialist sector is placed in similar conditions. If previously a peasant child received excessive workload from an early age, now the work of adolescents is regulated by appropriate legislation (see Labor). New forms and conditions of labor and measures for the protection of childhood give a significant reduction in child injuries. Child injuries, which, according to previous authors (Tezyakov and others.), constituted over 30% of all agricultural injuries, are now reduced to completely insignificant figures, and child injuries in collective farm agriculture are significantly lower than among individual farmers. Thus, in the processing of flax in collective farms, for every 10 adult injuries, there are 0.6 child injuries. In individual farms, the latter figure rises to 1.7 cases. The influence of living conditions is felt in agriculture much more strongly and clearly than in industry, and therefore when carrying out health measures in agriculture, maximum attention should be paid to the issues of living conditions.