Water Sports

WATER SPORTS encompass swimming, diving, water jumping, water games, rowing, and sailing. Engaging in these types of physical exercises is linked to the most complete utilization of the natural forces of nature—water, air, and sun—and contributes to the strengthening and hardening of the body, the development of many valuable psycho-physiological qualities, and the cultivation of a number of vital skills. In a number of countries, mass swimming instruction is currently being implemented in schools and in the army. In Norway, Sweden, Belgium, and some other countries, there are almost no adults who do not know how to swim. Swimming is the movement of the body through water, in which the resistance of the water to the body is used as a support for the thrusting movements of the arms and legs. In swimming, two factors are of essential importance: the reduction of body weight when immersed in water and the greater resistance of the aquatic environment compared to air during movement. While the first factor serves to alleviate the conditions of work during swimming, the second creates difficulties for movement and requires significant additional expenditure of energy. When swimming, one must take into account the thermal and mechanical effects of the aquatic environment. The effect of the relatively low temperature of the water (swimming can begin at 15–16° and rarely occurs at temperatures exceeding 24°) causes cooling of the body surface, requiring an increase in its heat production and a more intensive metabolism. A relatively short stay (15–20 minutes) in cool water, without prior hardening, causes a persistent drop in body temperature, which recovers after 1–1¹/₂ hours, and only as a result of systematic habituation and hardening does a gradual adaptation of the body occur, weakening its reaction to cooling and shortening the recovery period. The mechanical action of water is expressed in pressure on the skin, muscles, and internal organs, which contributes to increased blood circulation, fuller exhalation, and increased tension in the muscles that expand the chest, thereby creating, as it were, special conditions for respiratory gymnastics. During swimming, almost all parts of the body are in motion. Flexion and extension movements, adduction and abduction of the arms and legs (necessary for propulsion), and the work of the lumbar and back muscles (to maintain the body in a horizontal position) represent versatile gymnastics with resistance, which places a significant load on the body and makes swimming one of the most strenuous types of work. Thus, the oxygen expenditure per 1 meter of distance per kg of body weight (according to Liljestrand) is, for walking at a speed of 70 m/min, 0.10 cubic cm; for walking at a speed of 90 m/min, 0.15 cubic cm; and for walking at a speed of 115 m/min, 0.16 cubic cm. In running and cycling, this expenditure is even lower, while in swimming at a speed of 20 m/min it is 0.31 cubic cm, at a speed of 30 m/min it is 0.40 cubic cm, and at a speed of 50 m/min it is 0.54 cubic cm. This means that muscular work during swimming causes major changes in the body. When examining swimmers during competitions, the following changes in the body were established under the influence of various types of swimming (in % immediately after work): [Table data omitted]. When studying the effect of a 1 km swim, the following changes were established in men (in % immediately after work): pulse +81, spirometry -14, dynamometry of the right hand -6.3, maximum blood pressure +22, state of skin sensitivity +1.3; for the same swim in women—pulse +53, respiration +48. The degree of changes in the body depends on the speed of movement, the degree of training, and the swimming style. During fast swimming, water resistance increases (if the speed increases twofold, the resistance increases fourfold), which requires corresponding additional energy expenditures. Insufficient technical preparation and training are associated with the production of unnecessary movements while swimming, causing increased energy expenditure and an increase in pulse and respiration, reaching the point of shortness of breath. Observing the rhythm of movement and the rhythm of deep and calm breathing facilitates the swimmer's work. Swimming competitions are currently included in the program of all summer sports festivals and attract a significant number of swimmers, which is growing from year to year. The achievements of our swimmers are also growing from year to year, as can be seen from the following table (USSR record 1925 and 1928). The development of water sports also depends on the construction of special pools (see Swimming Pools). Of great sporting interest are achievements in long-distance swimming, the goal of which was to swim across the English Channel, the Panama Canal, a section of the Caspian Sea, etc., involving staying in the water for 22–24 hours or more in a row and covering distances of 40–60 km [Captain Webb in 1875—53 km in 22 h 45 min; Sullivan (English Channel) in 1923—63 km in 27 h 23 min; the Russian swimmer Romanenko in 1912 (in the Caspian Sea)—48 versts in 21 h 10 m; Gertrude Ederle (English Channel) in 1926 from Gris-Nez to Dover in 14 h 31 min, and others]. This type of sport does not deserve encouragement. Prolonged swimming practice has a beneficial effect on changes in physical development, especially contributing to the strengthening and development of the respiratory apparatus; thus, swimmers with average physical development show a greater chest circumference and vital capacity, which is visible from the following data, exceeding the values of the same indicators in athletes of other specialties with the same experience (see table on p. 298). Systematic training of swimmers improves the functional activity of their cardiovascular and respiratory systems, gives them greater stability, and develops the ability to regulate the activity of these organs in accordance with the intensity of the work being performed. Swimming exercises contribute to the good development of the musculature of the arms and legs, as well as the muscles involved in the act of breathing. Regular, uninterrupted swimming exercises serve as an excellent means of hardening, develop resistance against the harmful effects of cooling, and the ability to tolerate low water temperatures, which allows one to bathe without harm to the body even when frosts set in (groups of such bathers exist in winter in a number of Volga cities). Swimming has a beneficial effect on the nervous system, acting on it in a calming manner, improving sleep and general well-being, and also develops perseverance and self-confidence. In view of the fact that swimming is associated with significant muscular work, which causes a large expenditure of energy and places great demands on the work of the heart, careful attention must be paid to dosage during initial training and practice in swimming. Special caution is required in relation to weakened people, adolescents with incomplete physical development (swimming instruction for children can begin at 6 years of age), those with disorders of cardiac activity, the anemic, etc., for whom bathing and swimming movements are not contraindicated, but are permissible with a time limit from 1 1/2–2 minutes to 5–8 minutes (this especially applies to bathing in the sea). For completely healthy and gradually acclimating people, the stay in the water can last from 5 to 30 minutes, and with careful training and hardening—even longer. The sensation of cold, the appearance of shivering, and a feeling of fatigue should be a mandatory signal to leave the water. One can begin bathing at a water temperature of 19–20°, and if one bathes continuously, it can be continued even at a water temperature of 14–15°. Before entering the water, it is recommended to wipe sweat from the body. One should not enter the water while shivering from the cold; in such a case, one should first perform several energetic movements to warm up. It is absolutely harmful to enter and exit the water several times in a row, warming up in the intervals. This causes unnecessary expenditure of energy and causes fatigue. It is not recommended to bathe more than twice a day. One should not bathe earlier than 1 1/2–2 hours after a hearty meal. After bathing, it is necessary to wipe oneself dry until a pleasant warmth appears in the body.

The basic hygienic rules for swimming training are: caution, a gradual transition from the shortest distances to longer ones, adherence to rest intervals—short ones during a given training session, and longer ones (2-3 days) in the general course of training—and constant monitoring of self-assessment and medical check-ups. The choice of distance must be in full accordance with the strength and physical build of the swimmer. Beginners should not be allowed to participate in long-distance competitions during their first years. Simultaneous training and participation by the same person in several races of different distances should also not be permitted. Diving is immersion in water headfirst and movement underwater while holding one's breath. Breath-holding causes congestion in the pulmonary circulation and an accumulation of CO₂ in the body, as a result of which frequent and prolonged diving can lead to dilation of the heart. Holding one's breath for a short time contributes to the development of the respiratory center's resistance to the accumulation of CO₂ and has practical significance (e.g., in conditions where it is necessary to hold one's breath before putting on a gas mask when the air is poisoned by gases). Before diving, several deep inhalations and exhalations are performed, after which, during a breath-hold on inhalation, the body is calmly submerged in the water or a jump into the water is made. Breath-holding and staying underwater can reach 4 1/2 minutes (the Frenchman Pouliquen). To move underwater, a la brasse movements are used. Diving is an important technique for learning how to rescue drowning people. Diving is not permitted at all for persons with defects in cardiac activity. Jumping into the water can be a straight jump from a height of 4-7 m and a fancy jump (swallow dive) from a height of 12 m or more; of these, the former has some practical significance as a means of accelerating aid to a drowning person; the latter is exclusively athletic, developing courage and endurance. An unsuccessful jump can be accompanied by a turn onto the back and hitting the water with the back, hitting the water with the stomach, or, in a feet-first jump, hitting the bottom. Training for jumps should begin from a height of 1 m.

Water polo is a ball game played in water for those who know how to swim well. The game takes place between two teams of 5 or 7 people on a partitioned water field or in a special pool 15–25 m long and 8–12 m wide. The water depth is at least 1.5 m. At each end of the field, goals are set up, rising 1 m above the water. A well-greased, waterproof football is used for the game. The objective of the game is to get the ball into the opponent's goal as many times as possible. Rules of the game: it is permitted to grasp the ball with one hand; it is forbidden to strike the ball with a fist, to drown an opponent, to stand on the bottom, or to push off from the bottom or the walls of the pool. The duration of the game between men's teams is 14 minutes, with a 3-minute break after the first 7 minutes; for women's and children's teams, it is 10 minutes with the same break after 5 minutes. In addition to significant physical exertion and the general influence on the body common to swimming exercises, water polo cultivates the ability to act in coordination with teammates while in various positions in the water, to control one's movements, to act quickly and energetically, and it accustoms swimmers to the water. The time spent in the water is relatively short, but the energetic work performed by the players causes significant changes in their heart and respiration (pulse +65%, respiration +52%), which quickly return to normal in well-trained individuals. Participation in the game may be permitted no more than once a day; during team training, the game time should reach 14 minutes, increasing gradually. Contraindications are the same as for swimming. Rowing is a method of movement on water using the person's own energy on various types of small vessels with the help of oars adapted for pushing the rower along with the vessel through the water in the direction of travel. The hygienic conditions of rowing sports—the effect of clean, fresh air, direct and reflected light, the wide opportunity to use water for hygienic purposes, the soothing and distracting effect of the surrounding nature, and the constant repetition and rhythmicity of movements that involve muscle groups that are inactive during most types of physical work (back muscles, abdominal muscles, etc.)—determine the special value of rowing as a means of physical culture that strengthens health and improves physical development. A serious drawback of this sport is the high cost of equipment, which hinders its widespread development. Different types of rowing sports are determined by the characteristics of the vessels and the methods of using the oars depending on the goals pursued: racing rowing, short excursions, or water tourism. Rules of posture: the rower sits with a straightened torso, chest pushed forward, and abdomen pulled in; the legs are extended forward and straightened at the knee; the arms are extended forward and grasp the handles of the oars, which lie in the oarlock perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the boat (in sweep rowing, the hands lie on one oar with small gaps between them). When reaching for the oars, the torso, without bending, leans forward, the legs bend at the knees, and the straightened arms move the oar handles forward past the footrests, thanks to which the blades of the oars, passing at the same distance from the water, are carried backward. In the second phase, when bringing the oars in, by a quick lifting of the arms upward, the blades of the oars are submerged into the water up to their upper edge, the legs straighten, pushing strongly against the footrest, the torso leans backward with a quick movement, pushing the chest forward and straightening the spine, the shoulders are pressed to the sides, the arms, bent at the elbow at a right angle, follow the movement of the torso backward, thanks to which the oar handles are pulled back, and their blades, exerting pressure on the water and thus creating leverage, move the boat forward, overcoming the resistance of the water. When the hand grasping the oar handle touches the chest, the hands are quickly lowered, which releases the blades from the water; with a quick movement, the arms are carried forward, and the rower returns to the starting position to carry the oars forward again. There are no established speeds of movement for rowing, as they depend on a number of external conditions—weather, the speed of the river current, etc. The most common distance for rowing competitions is 1.5–2 km, and different achievements have been established for different places (Moscow, Leningrad, Sevastopol): Distance 2 km Moscow Germany (Grünau) Single (Pereselentsev) . . 7.54' 7.2' 7.42' 6.28'. Maximum utilization of the energy expended during this strenuous work is achieved by the purity of the execution of technical techniques in rowing, which ensure the full use of the muscular strength of all parts of the body transmitted to the oar handle (during the stroke), the sequential involvement of muscle groups (back, legs, arms) in the work, and a natural position of the torso, which creates favorable conditions for rest (during the recovery). The rhythmicity of the movements, the conditions of the work of the abdominal muscles, the pressing of the shoulders to the chest, etc., create favorable conditions for regulating breathing, with deep inhalations during the recovery and a full exhalation during the stroke. The intensity of the work, its frequent tempo, and the participation of the entire muscular apparatus in it create a large load on the body, increased oxygen consumption, and strenuous work of the heart, and cause serious changes in it, which indicate that rowing is one of the most difficult types of physical exercise. Thus, comparative data from the study of the urine of male skiers and rowers after competitions in rowing for 2 km and skiing for 20 and 30 km show that rowing, in terms of the severity of changes in urine, occupies a middle position between a 20 km and a 30 km ski run. Studies at the All-Union Festival of Physical Culture in 1927 established the following serious changes in the entire body after rowing for 2 km (Dreving and Dolinsky). Sex Weight Spirometry Increase in pulse (after 14-19 min.) Increase in respiration (after 14-19 min.) Men . . Women . . Men (in a kayak) . -729 g -374 » -488 » - 90 -133 + 33 + 27 + 34 +3.9 +4.4 + 3.1. Such intensity of work during rowing is the reason why fatigue of the cardiovascular system is more often observed in rowers, which manifests itself in higher blood pressure and increased pulse pressure after a functional test compared to representatives of other sports specialties who were in approximately the same conditions otherwise. Rowing occupies first place in the number of individuals having serious deviations in the heart; thus, an increase in the size of the heart in male rowers is observed in 12.6%, in female rowers—in 12.1%, and significant deviations—in male rowers—45%, in women—21.3%. Phenomena of overfatigue of the cardiovascular system in female rowers and beginners are more frequent and more severe compared to experienced rowers, which, apparently, depends on insufficient training and the choice of long distances that are too strenuous for these groups. Reasonable and systematic rowing is an excellent means of physical development, having a particularly favorable effect on the development of the chest and increasing lung capacity. At the Summer Festival of Physical Culture of the RSFSR in 1927, the following average data on the physical development of rowers were obtained. Groups Weight Height Chest circ. (inhalation) Vital capacity Men 66.6 173.9 94.4 7.6 4.760 Women 66.4 172.9 74.4 7.0 4.880 Men (above) 73.0 175.5 96.8 7.1 5.100 Women's group 59.3 161.3 87.9 7.9 3.580. These data also characterize the general morphological type of rowers, who are distinguished by great height and weight, a perfectly developed chest, a large arm span, and well-developed musculature of the upper girdle. Rowing, in addition to its general influence on physical development, should be evaluated as an excellent corrective means for straightening the back and reducing the stoop common among representatives of various professions. The automaticity of movements in rowing and the soothing effect of the surrounding environment create excellent conditions for the rest of the nervous system. Rowing as part of a team cultivates attention, concentration, and the ability to regulate one's movements and coordinate them with collective ones. Boat trips and water tourism develop perseverance and endurance and harden the body. Therefore, rowing should be widely recommended to persons of mental labor and those professions associated with monotonous work performed in a bent or sitting position, provided there is a generally satisfactory state of health and medical supervision, with special attention paid to the state of the cardiovascular system, regardless of age. Careful instruction in rowing for children can begin at 11–12 years of age. Rowing can be dangerous even for perfectly healthy people, as the apparent ease of the work often leads to overexertion of one's strength and, with insufficient caution, to overtraining (weight loss, fatigue of the cardiovascular and nervous systems). Training schemes should provide for a gradual increase in the total time of work, the speed of movement achieved, and the distance covered without rest, with constant checking of the state of the body through self-control and medical supervision. Weight loss, loss of appetite, and a feeling of fatigue require a break in training and a slowing down of its implementation.

To prevent the harmful effects of competitions, it is necessary to more strictly observe the division of rowers into categories in accordance with age and athletic experience, providing for a reduction in distance for beginners, to prohibit participation in several competitions on the same day, and to allow participation in competitions only on the basis of an assessment of medical observations and information about the progress of training work. Those engaged in rowing must know how to swim. Sailing is the use of wind energy when moving on water in a boat with the help of cloth sheets—sails—that can be moved in different planes. The ability to control sails and fully utilize the forces of the wind requires speed of movement, agility, observation, the ability to calculate movement, and to make visual estimations correctly and quickly. The real danger associated with the use of a sail develops courage and decisiveness. Therefore, sailing, while not requiring systematic physical exertion and not developing the strength and endurance of the organism, develops and exercises a number of valuable psycho-physical qualities. When organizing sailing at sea, it is necessary to ensure supervision by experienced leaders and assistance to those drowning. Only those who know how to swim may be allowed to participate in this type of sport.