Skiing

SKIING, movement on snow using skis for physical development, strengthening of health, recreation, as well as for developing practical skills (means of transportation, application for military purposes, for hunting). Skis represent a special apparatus that supports the body on the surface of snow; they are usually made from hard and resilient woods—birch, ash, beech, and others. They come in two main types: sliding and stepping. Sliding skis are made in the form of a board with a curved front tip and a particularly smooth lower surface; they are designed for sliding on snowy surfaces; they are used where faster and longer movement is required. Stepping skis consist of a wooden rim (resembling a tennis racket or oval) with thin straps stretched across it in a mesh pattern; they allow only stepping on snow. These skis are particularly stable, convenient for turning, and are used when working in forests, on rail transport, and in similar conditions. The construction of sliding skis, including sports skis, is determined by the conditions of their use: for walking on flat terrain—long, narrow; for rough terrain—wider, shorter, more maneuverable; for mountain terrain—even more durable (thicker), shorter and particularly easy to control. Thanks to the properties of skis as an auxiliary apparatus (stepping and sliding), movement on them in snowy, especially roadless areas, gives great advantages: on a good road in winter, a pedestrian covers 4-5 km in one hour, but in deep snow the speed can decrease to 1/2-1 km; an average skier under the same conditions covers 8-10 km and 5-7 km; a daily march for infantry is 30 km, while a ski daily march for a military unit is 45-50 km. On skis, it is possible to cover very long distances (for example, in 1929, a journey from Omsk to Moscow—2800 km) with short rests, averaging 60-70 km per day, etc. Advantages of movement on skis in terms of speed (for distances over 3000 m) compared to highest achievements (world records) in S. and running: S. (on flat terrain)—5 km—13 min. 45 sec.; 10 km—26 min. 54 sec.; 20 km—1 hour 47 sec.; 30 km—1 hour 34 min. 10 sec.; 50 km—3 hours 6 min. 46 sec.; in running: 5 km—14 min. 23 sec.; 10 km—30 min. 6 sec.; 20 km—1 hour 6 min. 29 sec.; 30 km—1 hour 45 min. 49 sec; 42.2 km (marathon)—2 hours 32 min. 35 sec. Skiing is one of the most widespread sports in Scandinavian countries and in all mountainous and snowy areas of Central Europe. In the USSR, S. developed only after the October Revolution due to the general growth of physical culture, as well as in connection with the expansion of production of special ski equipment and, in particular, skis.

Forms of S. are diverse: walks and excursions on skis, ski tourism, long-distance runs, speed runs (competitive S.), mountain skiing (simple skiing down mountains, figure skiing, ski jumping from special ramps), horse-S. (riding behind a horse), sail-S. (riding with a sail attached to the skier's back), etc. Movement on skis can be without poles and with poles. The latter serve to accelerate and facilitate movement and partly to maintain balance. The basic movements in skiing consist of sequential sliding movements of the legs and sliding due to inertia obtained from leg work, when pushing off with poles, as well as from a number of auxiliary body movements that facilitate forward movement of the skier. When walking with poles, two main gaits are distinguished: Russian and Finnish. The currently spreading so-called Norwegian gait represents a certain combination of the first two. In the Russian gait, simultaneously with forward movement of one leg (with a step), the opposite arm with a pole is moved forward, with which the push-off is made (at the moment of maximum forward movement of the leg). In the Finnish gait, the push is made with both poles at once. Each push with poles is preceded by one, two, or three small steps, which create the necessary inertia for forward movement of the body. Sliding is facilitated by more vigorous body work (bending at the moment of push) than in the Russian gait. With good sliding on a descent, movement can be achieved by working with just the poles, without moving the legs. Different gaits are usually alternated depending on local and other conditions: when climbing, in forests, when walking with a load, etc., the Russian gait is more often used; on flat terrain, on gentle descents—the Finnish. Alternating gait from time to time is also beneficial in terms of resting certain muscle groups predominantly used in one gait or the other. Energy expenditure when moving on skis is significant. According to Loewy, it is 8-45% more than when walking on foot. This coincides with the research of Liljestrand and Stenstrom, showing that in terms of the amount of oxygen absorbed per 1 liter* of distance and 1 kg of weight, skiing belongs to the most strenuous types of movement for the body (see Speed Skating). Variations in energy expenditure when moving on skis depend on many conditions: state of the snow (sliding of skis), profile of the path, etc. Loewy found that when climbing on skis to a height of 9 m, 1.58 liters³ O₂ per 1 kg/m of work is spent per minute, while without them for the same work, 1.35 liters³ is expended; on a very steep descent (with braking), 143% of the energy used in S.

442 in walking on level ground, but on a gentle descent-only one third of it. The largest factor affecting energy expenditure is the state of the skier's technical training. Data from Liljestrand and Stenström, mainly confirmed by Levi and Knoll, show that if the energy expenditure of a beginner (untrained) skier per 1 kg of weight and 1 m of distance is taken as 100%, then for the same work a slightly trained skier expends 78.3%, a well-trained skier-65%, and a very well-prepared skier-only 38.1%, despite the fact that the speed of beginners is 2-2^1/2 times lower than that of good skiers. This difference is quite explainable not only for walking on heavily rugged terrain (technique of ascent, descent, turns), but also for movement on a plain (superfluous movements of the beginner skier, insufficient sliding, etc.). Skiing belongs to the most valuable means of physical culture. It serves physical development, cultivation of endurance, development of agility and decisiveness (especially in mountain skiing and in skiing in rugged terrain), promotes expansion of the general outlook and knowledge of the physical culturist (excursions, tourism), allows more than any other sport to closely link physical culture with the political-economic and cultural tasks of the country (skiing trips to the village, agit-runs).-Exceptional importance skiing has as a type of physical exercise developing practical skills in the ability to use skis for various practical purposes, in peaceful life and in defense. Giving great savings in strength and time when moving and working on deep snow, skis find wide application in peasant life (work in the forest, hunting, etc.) as a means of communication in winter in roadless areas, in a number of works on railroads (snowdrifts, installation of shields, laying and checking telegraph-telephone lines), in forestry, in rural mail (mail carriers on skis), etc. No less importance do skis have in military affairs. In the conditions of maneuverable winter warfare, they are used in a number of special services (reconnaissance, security, communications), as well as for the purpose of accelerating the redeployment of infantry units and in the form of actions of special ski detachments (ski raids). The history of imperialist and civil wars counts many cases when significant forces of opponents, due to the lack of roads in deep snow, were doomed to inactivity (not only infantry, but also cavalry) and the outcome of military operations was decided by sudden strikes of units put on skis (uprising of white Finns in Karelia, a number of combat episodes in Siberia). Therefore, in the Red Army, as well as in the armies of foreign snowy countries, ski training is an obligatory part of the general training of a soldier. A great advantage of skiing is the hygienic environment in the forest, in the field. The excellent effect of skiing on physical development is determined by the nature of muscular work when moving on skis. In all methods of skiing, to one degree or another, a large number of muscle groups of the entire body are involved in the work. In walking without poles, the main work naturally falls on the leg muscles-thighs, pelvis, lower legs, feet. But in addition, significant work is done by the muscles of the back, abdomen, and shoulder girdle (auxiliary movements that promote sliding-shifting the body's center of gravity to the sliding leg, slight turning of the body to the side, sharp throwing of one hand forward and throwing the other back). Even more significant is the work of the musculature of the upper half of the body in the Russian method with poles-alternate moving them forward and upward, support on them and the final push, produced not only by the hand but by the entire shoulder. In the Finnish method, the work of the legs gives the skier mainly the initial forward movement, which develops into sliding due to the coordinated work of the torso and upper extremities. Even more diverse groups of muscles are involved in work when walking on heavily rugged terrain (ascents, descents, turns, etc.). Numerous studies (Knoll, Kohlrausch, Hug, Gorinevskaya, Dreving, etc.) on the physical development of skiers show that persons who systematically engaged in skiing for a number of years have a strong physique, proportionally developed musculature (along with good development of the lower belt, good development of the musculature of the torso and shoulder girdle, especially the muscles of the back, abdomen, and extensors of the arm), greater lung capacity (according to Gorinevskaya and Dreving, 1st category-4,720 cm³ and 2nd category-4,610 cm³) with good chest expansion (8-14 cm), etc. Among the features of morphological constitution contributing to success in skiing, Kohlrausch, Knoll, and Hug, when examining the best skiers, note predominantly a broad-short type of physique (great weight, wide skeleton and chest with a comparatively small height), which should obviously be connected with the advantage of shorter levers in skiing, especially in rugged and mountainous terrain. According to observations by a number of authors, a drawback in the physical development of persons engaged exclusively in skiing is a certain stoop. Its development can be connected with the characteristic position of the skier's body, which does not straighten completely (especially in the Finnish method), remaining somewhat hunched even at the moment of raising and extending the poles. Individual observations testify to the beneficial effect of systematic skiing on the state of the body-strengthening of the cardiovascular system, respiratory apparatus, nervous system, increase in general metabolism, etc. Relatively detailed scientific research data concern competitive speed skiing, associated with the greatest load on the body (especially in heavily rugged terrain with large ascents). As an exercise in the basic quality of a skier-endurance (duration with significant tension)-speed skiing makes exceptional demands (along with the respiratory apparatus) on the cardiovascular system. Deutsch, Kauf, Herxheimer, and others note that in terms of the effect on heart size, skiing belongs to the most difficult types of physical exercise. Deutsch and Kauf found in 18.2% of the examined skiers enlarged heart size (rowing-27.3%, swimming-14.9%, etc.). However, it cannot be considered established whether this was an expansion (dilatatio) of the heart or the so-called physiological hypertrophy of the heart muscle. As a result of strain in skiing, Henschen, Montigel, and partly Hoist noted acute heart dilation. On the contrary, the more recent precise research of Hug and Dedichen after difficult competitions discovered in 100% of all cases an acute decrease in heart borders. Hug and Rautmann consider this phenomenon a normal symptom of heart fatigue, believing that acute dilation occurs only in cases of severe overexertion. The high demands made by skiing on the entire cardiovascular system are confirmed by the observations of Rautmann: persons who before the start had a systolic blood pressure of more than 130 mm came to the finish in a state of extreme exhaustion. Works by Gorinevskaya, Dreving, Krestovnikov, and others showed that for schoolchildren (16-17 years old), ski competitions, even on short distances (1-2 km) and on level ground, are accompanied by significant changes in the state of their organism: increase in pulse after competition on average by 65-66 beats, after half an hour of rest by 18 beats, with a drop in blood pressure (maximum-on average by 19 mm, minimum-by 18 mm) and pulse pressure (by 15 mm), appearance of protein in urine (in some competitions up to 100% of all cases), etc. This requires a very cautious approach to ski competitions in school and to allow children to participate only with sufficient preparation. The magnitude of changes in the state of the body after competitions stands in especially close dependence on the degree of preparedness of the skiers for them (training). Thus, for example, Gorinevskaya and Dreving note that along with significant fatigue of skiers after a competition over 30 km (drop in blood pressure: maximum-by 9.3 mm, minimum-by 3.7 mm, pulse-by 5.6 mm, drop in spirometry by 230 cm³, appearance of protein in urine in 80% of all cases), in the winner of such a difficult type of competition as a run over 60 km, a slight increase in pulse, a slight drop in blood pressure, absence of protein in urine were found. A great load despite lower speed of movement (25 km in 3 h 49 min.) is represented by military-applied ski competitions, in marching equipment (load 26^1/2 kg)-drop in weight by 2.8%, increase in pulse by 70%, drop in blood pressure that lasted 2 days after the competition: maximum-by 6.3%, minimum-by 2.8%, pulse-by 4.9%, increase in young forms of neutrophils, etc.

Significant fatigue is also observed in participants in competitions for 5 km ski machine-gun detachments (movement with a machine gun mounted on sleds) - a weight loss of 1.1 kg, an increase in pulse rate by 50%, a drop in blood pressure: maximum by 8.8%, minimum by 2.4%, pulse pressure by 17.2%. As a rule, changes in the body's individual functions pass within a day of rest and persist only in cases of great overexertion. Essential requirements in ski competitions are appropriate distances in length (for women no more than 8-10 km) and difficulty (profile of the route) depending on the degree of preparation of participants; division of participants into categories based on their level of preparation, medical examination at least 2 times per season, with training conducted under medical supervision; instruction of competitors in self-control techniques. Long ski runs, not of a competitive nature, with adequate preparation for skiers and an average speed not exceeding 50 km, do not cause great fatigue. For example, the run of a military team from Moscow to Leningrad (725 km with a load of 16 kg and an average daily speed of about 50 km) was accompanied by a slight weight loss (3 kg), an increase in chest excursion by 1.5 cm, a slight increase in blood pressure - maximum by 7.5 mm, pulse pressure by 3.8 mm, etc., and after a week of rest, all signs of fatigue disappeared almost without a trace. On the contrary, with inadequate preparation and excessive speed of movement, the changes are significant and persistent: weight loss up to 4.6%, spirometry up to 4.1%, systolic blood pressure up to 40%, diastolic up to 14%, appearance of young forms of neutrophils, etc. Skiing finds wide application as a valuable means of physical education in the system of physical education for children of both sexes in schools, civilian and military physical education clubs. In the form of walks, skiing is quite accessible even in old age. Skiing, in the absence of contraindications, is also used in rest homes and sanatoriums as a healthy entertainment and therapeutic method for a number of diseases (nervous system, tuberculosis, etc.). Considering the heavy load on the body in skiing, the nature of activities in all cases (intensity and duration) must be strictly proportionate to age, sex, health status, and the general and special ski preparation of the participants. In childhood, skiing activities can begin at 5 years of age (depending on physical development) in the form of calm walking on a limited area or short (20-40 min.) not fast-paced walks, sledding down small hills, etc. At a later age (9-12 years), walks can be increased to 5-6 km, and even later (14-15 years), runs up to 15-20 km are permitted. Special training in alpine skiing should not be started before 11-12 years of age, and jumping before 16 years. For girls, as well as for women in general, ski jumping should be excluded due to the danger of damage to internal genital organs due to the great shaking of the entire body upon landing. Speed training should not be started before 15-16 years of age, and competition at 17-18 years (provided that previous skiing activities have been practiced for at least 2-3 years). Attention should be paid to the gradual increase in load in activities for adult beginner skiers. The first walk should generally not be more than 4-5 km, the second distance is slightly increased, the third reaches 6-8 km, etc. Longer outings (20-25 km) can be undertaken only after certain technical skills of skiing and sufficient endurance have been acquired. When learning the technique of skiing, special attention should be paid to correct breathing: as a rule, the inhalation should coincide with the moments of extending the poles, and the exhalation with the moment of pushing with the poles (bending of the body). When training children and adult beginner skiers, meteorological conditions should be taken into account: for children the temperature should not be below -12° (with wind -8-10°), and for adults not below -16° (with wind not below -12°). Along with a methodologically correct organization of activities (gradual increase in load, attention to technique training, etc.), great hygienic importance in skiing is attached to meeting special requirements regarding ski equipment, clothing, footwear, etc. The size of skis should correspond to the weight of the skier (approximately 20 cm² of ski surface per 1 kg of weight). The length of poles should not be above shoulder level. Attention should be paid to waxing skis with special wax corresponding to weather conditions to facilitate sliding on snow. Clothing should correspond to the skier's level of preparation and the nature of activities, etc. In all cases, it should not restrict movement, include unnecessary items, protect from cold, be excessively warm and heavy, and allow body moisture to pass through. A typical outfit for skiing can be underwear, over which a woolen or paper 'fufayka' (pullover), and in severe cold (as well as for a beginner skier) additionally a paper 'cowboy' shirt or in extreme case a wide jacket. The lower part of the outfit is ordinary trousers, which can also be recommended for women skiers, as being more convenient for skiing than a skirt. Woolen scarves and other items that hinder movement and create a danger of colds (intense warming of the neck) are not needed. In severe cold, skiers should not forget about earmuffs and triangular protectors for the groin, protecting the genital organs from frostbite. The most convenient headgear is not too thick a knitted cap and in extreme case a simple cap. For hand protection - simple knitted mittens (not gloves), over them - leather mittens. The best footwear for skiing is hard ski boots. Less convenient is soft special footwear, so-called 'piexy': they do not allow good control of skis and provide less protection for the foot from chafing. From ordinary footwear, simple boots of thick leather and valenki (felt boots) are good. Footwear should not be excessively large, but at the same time not tight, as this will impede blood circulation in the foot and accelerate its freezing. A paper sock should be worn directly on the foot, over it a woolen one. In severe cold - wrap the fingers in newspaper paper. The skier's pack with spare items and equipment (long excursions, runs) should be well-fitted, have wide shoulder straps, not restrict the chest from the front, and be attached below the waist. Nutrition in skiing, especially during long excursions, training, competitions, etc., should contain additional portions of such nutrients as fats, sugar. The daily ration for an adult skier in a run (50-60 km) should be approximately 4,500-4,800 calories. In competitions over 30 km, nutrition for participants should be organized along the way (raw eggs, cocoa, chocolate, etc.). It is necessary to train the skier to manage without drinking on the way (to drink only during long rest periods). Skiers should be instructed on how to prevent and treat common skiing frostbite and chafing. Preventive measures against the former - appropriate clothing, greasing of ears, protruding parts of the face, fingers of hands and feet with vaseline or fats. Measures to prevent chafing: foot care (washing, nail trimming), proper footwear, good fit of footwear and ski bindings (toe strap on the very toes, tight fit of the heel strap). Serious traumatic injuries in skiing on flat and slightly uneven terrain are extremely rare. When skiing down mountains and especially in alpine skiing (particularly in ski jumping), they occur quite often. More often than not, injuries to the ligamentous apparatus of the ankle joint and collarbone, dislocation of the shoulder, and less often fractures of leg bones are noted. As isolated cases, injuries resulting in death have been recorded (more often - damage to the spine). The usual cause of injuries - insufficient mastery of skis and poles (when descending, turning, braking) and ignorance of falling technique, etc. Therefore, only technically well-prepared skiers should be allowed to engage in alpine skiing and especially ski jumping.