Urban Planning

URBAN PLANNING. (Urban planning of populated areas.) In the field of urban planning of populated areas, large tasks are assigned to health authorities and in particular to sanitary authorities. In general terms, these tasks from a hygiene perspective reduce to the following: any newly planned populated area or city, as well as any populated area subject to replanning and reconstruction, must preserve for itself all natural environmental conditions favorable to health as much as possible. This includes - full utilization of direct sunlight penetrating all parts of the city and buildings, free ventilation of the city with clean air, healthy uncontaminated soil, provision for drainage and removal of wastewater, preservation of uncontaminated natural bodies of water, and presence of sufficient green spaces. These natural resources form the basis of healthy human existence, and the task of sanitary authorities in urban planning consists primarily in preserving these natural conditions. On the other hand, the concentration of large masses of population on small areas of populated territories, the development of industry, which in many cases still lacks methods to prevent contamination of surrounding areas by its waste, excessive development of transportation routes - all this creates a series of specific health hazards. In urban planning, sanitary authorities must take into account all these existing or potentially new hazards and through the corresponding system of urban planning as a whole or its individual parts eliminate or at any rate reduce the impact of these hazards on health. Thus, the direct participation of sanitary authorities in the entire matter of urban planning must be fully ensured, and modern hygiene has already developed a number of empirical principles and requirements in this field, which should be followed when evaluating corresponding planning projects and when formulating corresponding assignments. This participation of sanitary authorities is actually being implemented, and the practice of developing urban planning projects in the USSR shows the importance of mandatory participation of sanitary authorities in this matter. The socialist reconstruction of the country has revealed in the USSR the issue of urban planning of cities and other populated areas as one of the main tasks of the present moment. As early as 1926, a special law of the RSFSR provided for the obligation for cities with a certain number of inhabitants to begin developing projects of their urban planning with corresponding expansion of their territory. A number of cities are currently carrying out these works. The experience accumulated over these years is currently being summarized in a special new law of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR of August 1, 1932 ("On the arrangement of populated areas"). This law provides a general basis for carrying out corresponding work in localities, determines methods for developing projects, and indicates the procedure for their approval. The general organization of this matter is under the jurisdiction of local communal authorities, and in the center - under the jurisdiction of the People's Commissariat for the Economy. A number of sections of this law also address sanitary tasks in this area. The law broadly interprets the concept of urban planning and gives precise instructions regarding the scope of both preparatory work and the development of the projects themselves. Article three of the law defines these tasks as follows: "Projects for the arrangement of cities, workers', resort and dacha settlements are developed on the basis of geodetic surveys, geological, hydrological, meteorological and sanitary-technical surveys and economic plans and consist of: a) the planning project; b) the building project; c) the technical equipment project and d) the land-economic arrangement project". Article five of the law also emphasizes the need to take into account a number of requirements in these projects: "Urban planning projects must be developed on the basis of full coordination of all elements of production, energy, transport, improvement, everyday life, hygiene, culture and their interdependence with consideration for their future development". Finally, article seven of the law once again states that: "Building projects for populated areas are presented with the calculation that as a result of their implementation... b) necessary sanitary-hygienic conditions for the population are ensured... sufficient spacing between buildings, proper illumination by sunlight, cross ventilation, green spaces, etc.". The immediate tasks of sanitary authorities in urban planning fall into two parts. First, the mandatory participation of sanitary authorities in preliminary surveys and investigations in the area where the given populated area is being designed or reconstructed, and in the selection of specific territories and sites for construction and layout of the city; and second, mandatory participation in the development of the urban planning project as a whole and in its individual elements. In each individual case, the local sanitary supervision must conduct thorough sanitary-epidemiological and sanitary-technical surveys of the territory designated for urban planning or replanning. This includes the study of sanitary-statistical data, i.e., the natural movement of population - its mortality, birth rate and natural increase; further, the study of morbidity of the population, especially epidemic, as well as other mass diseases, in particular tuberculosis, helminthiases, etc., and finally the study of the general sanitary condition of the area. Then, meteorological data must be collected, i.e., data on insolation, climate, humidity, fluctuations in wind direction, atmospheric precipitation, etc. Similar data should also be available in the study of soil and its hydrogeological structure (swampiness, ravines, groundwater level, landslides). Then materials should be gathered in the study of natural bodies of water in the area, their capacity, water quality and degree of contamination. Finally, materials are collected about the presence of green spaces and their character. To all these data, the sanitary survey adds information about the sanitary condition of adjacent territories and neighboring populated areas. As a result of these works, a general sanitary description of the area should be obtained, indicating both favorable natural conditions and hazards recorded during the survey. This sanitary description should serve as the starting basis for developing corresponding sanitary indicators when formulating the urban planning project. On the basis of these preliminary surveys, further work is carried out on the final selection of territory for the populated area. From a hygiene point of view, any territory designated for the establishment of a populated area must satisfy a number of sanitary conditions. Basically, these conditions reduce to the following: dry uncontaminated soil with low groundwater level (at least 1.5 m), absence of swampiness or stagnant water, non-floodability by spring waters, convenient unbroken relief, proximity to good natural bodies of water with flowing water, absence nearby of any factors contaminating water, air and soil (old dumps), protection from strong winds and finally favorable illumination by sunlight. All these sanitary conditions must be coordinated with the socio-economic plans proposed for this city or populated area, i.e., it is necessary to take into account the special features of each city - its industry, communication routes, administrative significance, etc. When selecting territory, sanitary supervision must particularly provide for the presence of good water sources and the possibility of organizing their protection from contamination, as well as places for discharge and treatment of wastewater and waste with consideration for non-contamination of soil and air. It is particularly necessary to emphasize the requirement to have sufficient green areas in this territory, preserving them from destruction. On the basis of the sanitary survey and after resolving the issue of selecting a location for the populated area, work is carried out on formulating assignments for the development of the project itself. And here sanitary authorities provide a number of their special assignments and participate consultatively in developing general assignments. The main groups of issues in which sanitary supervision has to work in this matter are as follows: 1) organization of individual districts of special purpose within the given populated area (industrial sites, residential quarters, transport hubs, protective zones, green spaces, agricultural lands), 2) relationships between the residential and industrial parts of the city, 3) organization of communication routes in the city (streets, squares, passages, local transport), 4) detailed planning of green spaces (systems of parks, gardens, boulevards, intra-quarter plantings), 5) organization of residential quarters (enlarged residential quarter, residential complex), 6) sanitary-technical servicing of the city (water supply, sewerage, waste disposal, heating, public catering, etc.), 7) network distribution in the city of cultural-educational, physical education and preventive medical institutions, as well as institutions in the field of personal hygiene, and 8) connection with adjacent areas, 305

URBAN PLANNING

30« in particular with agricultural ones, the organization of suburban state farms. The first and second questions are particularly highlighted in the district planning. Hygienic requirements in the organization of individual city districts necessitate the division of the city into separate parts according to their functional purpose, i.e., an industrial part, a residential part, and then districts where central, administrative, and cultural institutions are located, as well as a district for railway and waterway communication routes. The question of the relationship between the industrial and residential parts of the city has special sanitary significance. As a general hygienic principle, it is necessary to establish that these two parts should only adjoin each other, but in no way should surround each other. In other words, the industrial part should not form a continuous ring around the residential quarter, and conversely, residential quarters should not surround the industrial territory in the same way. Sites occupied by industry should have free access to transportation, to the delivery of raw materials, and to their local sources, as well as corresponding reserves for their further development. Residential quarters should have free access to fields and extramural green areas, to natural bodies of water, and also have their own reserves. Communication between the industrial and residential parts of the city must be fully ensured. The existing sanitary rules in the RSFSR establish norms for distances between industry and housing. These 'Rules for the Allocation of Land Plots for Industrial Enterprises', issued by the People's Commissariat of Health and the People's Commissariat of Local Government on April 28, 1930, divide all industry into 3 main groups based on its harmful effect on health. Class A includes enterprises most dangerous to health, which must be located outside the city limits. The distance between these enterprises and the residential part of the city must be at least 2 km; housing in this zone is not permitted. Enterprises of this class include production with harmful gases and dust, with severe contamination of soil and bodies of water, strong noise, as well as dangers of an infectious nature—some branches of the chemical industry, production of acids, explosives and suffocating gases, cement plants and lime production, partially the metallurgical industry (blast furnaces), oil refineries, leather production, paper production, utilization plants for animal waste. Class B contains enterprises that can be established within the city limits in special industrial districts of the city with a distance from residential quarters of at least 250 m and with the creation of green protective zones here. The location of these enterprises should be on the leeward side, relative to residential quarters. The harmful effects of these enterprises are easier to eliminate; this is the rest of the chemical industry (soap, rubber, paints), metalworking industry (machine building, rolling, forging), processing of fibrous substances and tobacco, woodworking, processing of mineral substances and animal products, food and flavoring products, power plants. Class C includes enterprises whose establishment is permissible even in residential parts of the city (kitchen factories, printing houses, sewing production, etc.). In individual cases, local conditions may require some variation in the application of these rules. The uniqueness of meteorological conditions, technical successes that neutralize some industrial hazards, the limited prospects of a given industrial site—all this can be taken into account when establishing the required sanitary distances between industry and housing. The terrain and wind strength play a special role here. The latter factors are studied on the basis of graphic materials, i.e., the so-called 'wind rose'. By this name is meant a graphical representation of the strength and duration of wind action in a given locality. The location of streets and roads in cities also has significant sanitary importance, and in planning, sanitary requirements must be taken into account. The direction of streets in cities affects the proper ventilation of the city, proper solar lighting and direct insolation, and to a large extent also the orientation of buildings by cardinal points. The width of streets affects the illumination of buildings and their mutual shading. Finally, the same width of streets and their sanitary equipment affects the increase or decrease in street traffic with its noise, air pollution, and so-called street trauma (accidents). Hygienic study of this issue has established that the most correct direction of street traffic from the point of view of the most complete use of sunlight and heat in our latitudes should be diagonal, i.e., from northeast to southwest or from northwest to southeast. With respect to the direction of prevailing winds, the direction of streets is also not indifferent from a sanitary point of view. If there are strong winds that dust the city, it is more convenient to make the direction of streets perpendicular to the direction of the blowing winds to reduce dust. If the winds have little strength, it is more advantageous to give the streets a direction parallel to the wind direction; this results in more complete natural ventilation of the city. In the case of cold winds, a perpendicular direction to them is more convenient for streets. From a hygienic point of view, it is extremely important to observe the established classification of street traffic into major street arteries with lively transit traffic and so-called residential streets with little traffic. The first arteries connect the main districts of the city and provide appropriate exits to the industrial part of the city and to extramural communication routes, as well as to the areas adjacent to the city. These roads should be sufficiently wide, technically properly equipped (street plantings, boulevards, pedestrian paths, etc.). Conversely, within residential quarters, streets should have only local significance and therefore should have less width and in some degree different equipment. All intracity mechanical means of transportation, i.e., trams, buses, automobiles, should run along the main arteries, as far as possible not affecting the streets of the second group. The question of green plantings in cities is the next sanitary moment that must be taken into account in planning. Here the questions of plantings of large-scale Urban Planning

of the green areas of three cities, connected to each other by narrower lines of green plantings, as well as the creation of suburban parks. Special attention must be given to the issues of intra-quarterly green plantings (see in detail: Green Plantings). In the residential part of the city, the question of the urban planning of a separate residential quarter has the greatest sanitary significance. This question has undergone a fundamental review in recent years. The typical small quarter in our old cities, tied to the existence of private land ownership (small land plots), was one of the causes of a number of sanitary harms. The overcrowding of the population, the poor condition of courtyard estates, the so-called continuous development—all this must be recognized as a negative factor from a sanitary point of view. A decisive step in eliminating these sanitary harms should be the replanning of these small quarters into new enlarged quarters with a total area of 6-10 hectares and more, with a population of 4,000-6,000 people. This quarter, bounded by larger street thoroughfares, allows for its extensive area the free placement of all residential buildings of one type or another, with full consideration of all hygiene rules regarding insolation, winds, etc. Moreover, this same extensive area of the quarter allows for the organization of intra-quarterly green plantings within it, in particular children's playgrounds serving the needs of the entire quarter. The so-called socialization of daily life finds full opportunity for its development in the enlarged quarter. The enlarged residential quarter is organized as a single residential complex with its own residential buildings and unified cultural-domestic and sanitary-technical service institutions, i.e., intra-quarterly children's institutions, nurseries, playgrounds, physical culture enterprises, public dining rooms, distribution centers, laundries, etc. Intra-quarterly traffic is maintained by small drives and garden-type paths. A difficult question in the urban planning and development of quarters is the problem of permissible population density. At present, hygiene has established approximate sanitary norms in this area—from 150 to 300 people per 1 hectare. These sanitary norms vary depending on the sanitary-technical equipment of the quarter and must also take into account a number of economic possibilities. The same enlarged quarter makes it possible to avoid excessive multi-story construction. The problem of the enlarged quarter is to a large extent the basis for the construction of a socialist city. As already indicated above, special importance in urban planning is given to the issues of sanitary-technical service of the city. The law of 1/VIII 1932, point 5 'd', specifies that the urban planning project must necessarily provide: 'The general basis for the technical equipment of the populated area with the simultaneous development of general topics: water supply, sanitation, electrification, storm drains, ...land reclamation (drainage and regulation of rivers, ravines, etc.) and fire protection.' For large populated areas, the above scheme is supplemented by the development of schemes for sewerage, heating, and gasification. There cannot be a project for a populated place without precise indication of these schemes. In particular, the source of water supply for cities must be precisely designated, and all urban planning must be adapted in such a way that this source is guaranteed against any pollution. In other words, this source must be, when using river water, above the city downstream; groundwater must not have a connection, if used for water supply, with contaminated parts of the city. The territories of the sanitary protection zone must be precisely fixed (see Sanitary Protection Zones—zones of sanitary protection of water sources). A similar scheme must also be provided for sanitation institutions, i.e., the scheme for the city's sewerage with indication of the places of discharge of wastewater and methods of their treatment and use, and in the absence of sewerage, methods of removal and disposal of refuse, distribution of corresponding sanitary facilities in the city territory, as well as places for processing this refuse. In the presence of collective farms and state farms, it is necessary to combine all these territories with agricultural lands for the complete utilization of all this refuse and wastewater (see Sewerage, Sanitation of Populated Areas). In the same area of sanitary-technical service, sanitary supervision also designates places for such institutions as cemeteries, crematoria, animal cemeteries, slaughterhouses, utilization plants, etc. All of them should be located outside the city in an area that does not threaten the pollution of air and soil for the population. As a separate issue in urban planning is the distribution of various cultural institutions in the city territory. The law of 1/VIII 1932, point 5 'g', requires that urban planning projects establish: 'The basis of the population service system, including networks of public catering and trade, as well as networks of municipal-domestic, socio-cultural, preventive-medical, physical culture, public and administrative institutions.' Thus, here too the sanitary authorities face the task of precise distribution of all these institutions in the city with due consideration of the relevant sanitary factors. In the area of public catering, a district of centralized institutions (canning factories, bakeries, sausage enterprises, etc.) should be designated, close to railway communication lines and constituting a special territorial unit. The network of public dining rooms and factory kitchens is distributed throughout the city, partially included in enlarged quarters; municipal-domestic institutions, i.e., bathhouses, laundries, barber shops, should have a quarterly distribution, promoting the socialization of daily life. Schools and children's institutions are also distributed according to a network principle, serving either directly residential quarters (intra-quarterly nurseries, children's playgrounds, gardens and primary schools) or entire districts (factory schools, technical schools, higher educational institutions, etc.). The latter institutions should also be connected with production, i.e., be near or in some cases on the territory of industrial enterprises. Preventive-medical institutions should also have a network character. The initial cell of healthcare, the health station, has its territorial location in production, i.e., on industrial sites. In enlarged quarters and children's institutions, their own health stations are organized. Outpatient service of the population, conducted on the model of a unified dispensary, is distributed throughout the city at the rate of 1 dispensary per 30,000-40,000 population. The location of these dispensaries should be, if possible, on the way between housing and industry, intercepting human flows. Maternity homes should have a denser network throughout the city. Hospital institutions are allocated to a special hospital campus on the outskirts or outside the city in the most favorable location. Sanitary institutions are concentrated in so-called sanitary stations (disinfection facilities, vaccination bureaus, isolation houses, sanitary checkpoints, sanitary-educational institutions, district sanitary bureaus and sanitary doctors). Physical culture institutions cover the entire city, entering the system of both enlarged quarters (physical culture grounds) and individual districts and the city as a whole (district houses of physical culture, central stadiums, water and ski stations, etc.). Rest homes and sanatoriums are preferably planned outside the city limits.

The interests of serving the urban population with agricultural products and the more general task of eliminating the difference between city and countryside particularly highlight in the urban planning of populated places the problem of suburban state farms. From a sanitary point of view, as noted above, it is important to combine these state farms with the city's sewage treatment facilities, as well as to connect them with public catering institutions. Finally, defense requirements may in individual cases require coordination of these tasks with sanitary tasks (construction of airfields, shooting ranges, military industry enterprises, camps, etc.). According to the same law of July 1, 1932, projects for the urban planning of populated places are approved: a) for populated places with up to 50,000 people - by regional and executive committees; b) for populated places with over 50,000 people - by the People's Commissariat of Local Industries; c) for the main cities of autonomous republics and for regional and center cities - by the Council of People's Commissars. Thus, local sanitary authorities (districts, cities, regions) as well as central institutions of the People's Commissariat of Health are successively involved in the preliminary development and consideration of these urban planning projects. A special procedure for the participation of sanitary authorities in this matter is determined by special instructions. The principle reflected in the law on 'Sanitary Authorities of the Republic' of 1927 remains unshakable, according to which the functions of sanitary authorities include consideration of issues of urban planning of populated places from a sanitary point of view. All the tasks of proper urban planning of populated places in their broad understanding and actual implementation in capitalist countries inevitably face the impossibility of fulfillment. Private ownership of land, buildings, and enterprises puts a decisive limit to urban planning measures, as the will and interests of individuals and groups of the propertied classes prevail over the general interests of communal life. This leads to a dead end all modern bourgeois searches in the field of theory and practice of urban planning and forces one to be content with palliatives. The abolition of private ownership of urban land, on the contrary, gives full opportunity for the broad development and implementation of urban planning ideas taking into account all the above-mentioned factors, making urban planning itself an element of the socialist reorganization of society. The problem of the socialist city is now posed in the USSR as a problem of the day. In the light of this problem, the fundamental question of eliminating the contradiction between city and countryside is resolved. The same goal is pursued by the second five-year plan for the development of the national economy of the USSR, which 'by fundamentally reconstructing both agriculture and its servicing by industry, fundamentally undermines the very foundations of the opposition between city and countryside' (from the results of the XVI Party conference). Comrade Kaganovich correctly pointed out in his speech at the June (1931) plenum of the CC VKP(b) that 'besides the growth of new cities and industrial centers, we already have the growth of new cities on the basis of large-scale socialist agriculture. Hundreds of large state farms and collective farms, thousands of machine-tractor stations are already the foundation for thousands of new cities in agricultural areas, because these areas, as Lenin said, are being transformed on the basis of combining industry with agriculture on the soil of the conscious application of science and the combination of collective labor'. More precise premises for the urban planning of new types of agricultural settlements (agrosettlements) are currently being developed in the relevant USSR organs (NKZem) taking into account all new economic and socio-economic conditions. At present in the USSR, issues of scientific and practical activity in the field of urban planning are concentrated in special union institutes - the 'State Institute for City Design' - Giprogor (Moscow, Kharkov, etc.). In addition, a number of institutes of the NKZdr study these issues (Institute of Communal Hygiene of NKZdr in Moscow, Institute of Experimental Medicine in Leningrad with its sanitary department, etc.). In 1931, the Academy of Communal Economy was created in Moscow, which has a sector for urban planning. In some higher technical institutions, faculties of urban planning have been created (Moscow - Architectural-Building Institute). In the literature, issues of urban planning are reflected in the periodic technical and medical press ('Construction of Moscow', 'Socialist City', etc.). Finally, the Communist Academy has a group for studying issues of socialist settlement and is planning to convene all-union congresses. An exhibition on the construction of socialist cities and urban planning was organized in Moscow in 1931. In Europe, there exists the International Federation for Housing and Town Planning, which convenes annual congresses, organizes exhibitions, and publishes a bulletin. The last congress was in Berlin in 1931. The address of the Federation's secretariat is 25 Bedford Row, London W.C. 1. International Federation for Housing and Town Planning. The proceedings of international congresses are published as separate editions.

a. Sisin. Urban Planning of the Socialist City. Socialist planning of the city and countryside is the most complex and urgent problem of reconstructing old cities and organizing new socialist cities, freed from the overcrowding and insanitary conditions of the capitalist city - the lack of clean air, water, light, etc., and at the same time from rural barbarism. Socialist planning should give rise to a completely new type of city: the socialist city, which, not being a city opposed to the countryside nor the countryside itself, combines within itself the healthy features of the countryside - space, air, light and the advanced culture of cities. The rapid growth of cities that have arisen in 2-3 years on completely empty places, for example Magnitogorsk, Orsk, Khibinogorsk, which already have 70,000-80,000 inhabitants, is an unprecedented planned construction of cities in human history. The appearance of dozens and hundreds of old cities being rebuilt also changes beyond recognition: Baku, Grozny, Stalingrad, Novosibirsk, Gorky and others. As a result of building the foundation of the socialist economy, creating large-scale socialist industry and agricultural production on the basis of collectivization, a material basis for the socialist reconstruction of the city and countryside has now been created alongside the social one. The socialist nature of our cities is determined by the absence of private ownership of land, industry, and the residential and public fund of the city. The interests of the urban economy in the USSR express the interests of the working people, in contrast to the municipal economy of capitalist countries, whose urban economy is a means of additional exploitation of the working people. The modern capitalist city concentrates all the commanding heights of the capitalist economy, the boards of joint-stock companies, trusts and syndicates. In addition to its industrial significance, the city becomes the citadel of financial capital. The city as an industrial and financial center is the center of all state, military and administrative life and a huge center of attraction, starting with the proletarianized peasant and ending with the rentier. The class character of society determines the class structure of the city. If the city provides favorable conditions for the highest manifestation of the social being of the bourgeoisie, for the proletarian the modern city is a place of violence against him, leading him into the swamp of poverty, acute housing shortage and physical degeneration. The planning structure vividly reflects this class character, where the rich, well-equipped quarters of the bourgeoisie stand in opposition to the slums of proletarian quarters, sometimes entire districts, the living conditions of which were so vividly described by Engels. The main contradiction of the capitalist city lies in the antagonism between the city and the countryside. The city concentrates everything that capitalist culture offers, while the countryside receives everything that corrupts and degrades it. The countryside considers the city its enemy, sucking out all its lifeblood. The city chokes in its own manure, while the fertility of the soil in rural areas is not restored in any way. The structural contradictions of the capitalist city consist in the fact that the anarchy of production and the continuous process of concentration and centralization lead to the excessive swelling of the city. Boundless swelling leads to a crisis of intra-city transport, all means of improvement, communication, etc., which, intertwining with each other, lead urban development into a dead end. The industrialization of the outskirts further expands the area of the city's influence and further complicates intra-city transport. Wanting to make the fullest use of the land plot, the capitalist increases the number of floors, but the increasing number of floors naturally increases the population density and, with inevitable speculation, further increases the land rent in the city. Hence an even greater number of floors, etc. All this sharply affects the health of the working people, worsening the sanitary conditions of the urban population. Already K. Marx ('Capital') emphasized this, pointing out that 'the demolition of poorly built quarters, the construction of palaces for banks, large stores, etc., the laying out of streets for trade purposes and for the passage of luxurious carriages, etc., improvements accompanying the growth of wealth, quickly drive the working masses into ever worse and worse, ever more narrow alleys... The high price of apartments, as is known, is inversely proportional to their quality, and the mines of poverty are exploited by speculative builders with smaller costs and greater profit than the silver mines of Potosi'. Marx quotes Laing, who says: 'each great city is a place of human sacrifice, an altar on which thousands of victims are killed annually in honor of Moloch of greed'. The historically established planning of the city no longer corresponds to its basic functions, but any attempt to change its face runs up against private ownership of all elements of the city. A classic example in this field is the replanning of Paris according to the project proposed by the prefect of the Seine department, Baron Haussmann. To lay out one of the main arteries according to the plan made by Haussmann in 1860, it was only possible in 1927, i.e., 67 years later. The contradictions of the capitalist city have gone so deep that, in the expression even of bourgeois scientists, it stands on the brink of catastrophe, daily threatened with destruction. An example is New York - this ideal of urbanists. Having reached 103 floors vertically, skyscrapers give colossal figures of density. On the other hand, the horizontal connection with the suburbs and the nature of the main traffic schedules passing through one point - 'The City' - have created enormous overstrain in the center of the city and at the intersection of arteries. Several floors of subways, one under the other, underground, aerial, overhead create an impression of extreme overload. All technical possibilities of the subway have been used to the limit. Subway trains move at intervals of 1.5 minutes one after another. The slightest delay - and all transport stops. Transport, intended for fast movement, cannot move fast. The fast cars of Citroen and Ford, designed for a speed of 120 km, or Lincoln, designed for 175 km per hour, can move around the city at a speed of 4 km per hour, i.e., at the speed of a pedestrian. Something similar is repeated with the improvement of the city. Water supply and sewerage pipes have reached such sizes that a car can drive through them. Electric, telephone cables with 2,400 wires in each, pneumatic mail tubes, underground passages for pedestrians have created such a complex underground economy that accidents threaten to stop all life in the city. The development of the modern capitalist city leads to the idea of its negation. Scientific thought of the capitalist world has long been occupied with finding a way out of the situation that has arisen. One of the talented Western architects, Le Corbusier, dreams of a rationalized city of skyscrapers. He proposes to go along the path of large densities up to 1,000 and even 3,000 people per hectare, building 60-story skyscrapers. But he considers New York skyscrapers uncultured, because they darken the streets and create overcrowding. He proposes to place skyscrapers at a distance of 100 meters from each other. By also destroying the first floor and placing skyscrapers on columns, he thus tries to increase the transport possibilities of this new city of skyscrapers. This idea of houses on pillars finds great approval in engineering circles, but in social terms it changes nothing, because colossal clusters of population will remain, 60-story skyscrapers will remain. The most essential thing is that his projects run up against private ownership of individual plots and buildings; there is also no body that could specifically organize the entire problem raised by him (Le Corbusier) regarding Paris. Another method of treating the capitalist city, which bourgeois scientific thought has put forward, is the idea of the linear city of Charles Gide and the major German architect Rading. Rading proposes a project of a grand linear city along the railway line Breslau-Berlin. The total length of this city is proposed to be 350 km. Development will go on one side, with groups of houses connected by a railway, with stations every 50 km, and bus lines. The city, stretching for 350 km, is designed for 150,000 people living in 40,000 houses. Each house is for one family and they are located every 100 m. The English architect Unwin proposed the idea of satellite cities, i.e., the formation around a central city of a series of smaller cities connected to the center. An interesting idea was put forward by Howard in opposition to the capitalist city with its insanitary condition. He developed a plan for a city in the form of a continuous garden city (see Garden Cities). But all these attempts in one form or another to find a way out for the capitalist city are futile, because one cannot reconcile the irreconcilable, introduce planning within the framework of the unplanned, anarchic, capitalist system; therefore all these projects and plans are doomed to failure. Howard's idea over the course of 30 years has given only a small attempt at implementation.

It was enough to touch upon at an international congress on Urban Planning of cities the most important question about the demolition of unsuitable residential quarters, as everything ran up against the problem of private property. Whatever the idea of planning may be, it runs into insurmountable obstacles, and in essence, the planning of capitalist cities amounts only to rationalizing measures, improving individual thoroughfares, but the reconstruction, which we comparatively easily carry out, the capitalist world does not know. In contrast to the spontaneous growth of the capitalist city, cities in the USSR can grow; according to a well-thought-out plan and only to the necessary dimensions. The development of cities in the 2nd five-year period, thousands of new settlements on the basis of MTS, Soviet and collective farms, is determined by the planned placement of productive forces, the planned placement of socialist industry and the growth throughout the country of large-scale socialist agricultural production. On the basis of the rational placement of productive forces, the use of natural wealth, energy and raw material bases, the USSR is moving toward the gradual elimination of the opposition between city and countryside. What can one take that is good from the city? That which, thanks to a certain concentration and compactness of the population, makes it economically possible to have maximum conveniences in all areas of production and daily life: water supply, sewerage, gasification, heat supply, the use of all cultural heritage, all the achievements of science and technology. And from the countryside - its nature, natural environment, the use of greenery, water, etc. On the other hand, in socialist cities there should be no place for the negative aspects of the capitalist city: overcrowding, insanitary conditions, unevenness in the placement and servicing of the population, i.e., all that which is caused by the class structure of the capitalist city. In the planning of socialist cities, in contrast to capitalist cities, excessive concentration on small plots of large masses of population, enterprises, schools, hospitals, theaters, clubs, stores, canteens, etc., should not be permitted. Socialist cities remain strongholds of the dictatorship of the proletariat, but at the same time, thanks to the planned placement of industry, there will no longer be, as a rule, excessive accumulation of industry and population in individual cities. We are moving toward the elimination of the opposition between city and countryside not on the basis of eliminating cities, but on the basis of their transformation and socialist reorganization of the countryside and raising it to the level of advanced urban culture. The satisfaction of the increased cultural and domestic demands of the working masses should be provided by our socialist cities and become true models of socialist human settlement. The immediate conditions for the development of the national economy in the 2nd five-year period also determine the forms of construction of socialist cities. The increase in urban population from 30 to 50 million by the end of the 2nd five-year period means enormous growth of cities and the emergence of new ones. New cities arise exclusively on a production, industrial and agro-industrial basis. The main condition for the reconstruction of the national economy in the 2nd five-year period is the electrification of all the main branches of the national economy on the basis of the principles of electric ring circuits, which will reduce the dependence of the placement of industrial points on fuel-energy bases. Agriculture under the conditions of the vast scale of collectivization, the growth of Soviet farms, machine-tractor stations also creates the soil for the organization of settlements of urban type with an agro-industrial character. The specialization of districts, the mechanization of agriculture, the development of industry processing agricultural products will undoubtedly cause the concentration of agricultural production and population. Thus, the conditions for the comprehensive use of natural wealth, leading to the construction of industrial combines, the possibility of transmitting energy over long distances, the practice of electric ring circuits and the zoning of agriculture put forward the method of regional planning. Regional planning, compiled on the basis of prospective plans for the development of an entire district, gives the most rational from the socio-productive and technical-economic point of view the comprehensive placement of industry, extractive and processing; agricultural production, transport, energy and populated places in the district. Regional planning indicates the locations, basic dimensions, character and prospects of existing and planned for construction industrial enterprises, central district stations, heat and power plants, energy transmission networks, state farms, collective farms, with the determination of their specialization, helps in the placement of enterprises for processing agricultural raw materials, warehouses, elevators, as well as points for the placement of population, communication systems, transport, etc. The planning of individual populated places and the replanning of old cities must be carried out with due regard to regional planning. The economic, cultural and political significance of each populated place in the USSR and the prospects for its development are determined on the basis of national economic planning. The planning of a populated place should give a plan for the rational placement and arrangement of the individual elements of production, housing, communication, cultural-domestic and municipal services located in it or planned for it, as well as reserve lands for structures provided for in the prospective plan of regional planning. In this, one should proceed from the necessity of compact concentration of the population for the best organization of collective forms of labor and cultural life, as well as in the interests of maximum economy and efficiency of capital investments in engineering and municipal structures of the socialist city. The planning project establishes the approximate boundaries of population and territory growth of the socialist city. The socialist city is organized as a single complex. Industry is located in non-residential areas, ensuring the highest sanitary-technical conditions for the population's life, without polluting the air, soil and water. This is achieved by the placement of industrial enterprises, as already indicated, on the leeward side, by the creation of protective green zones 250 to 2,000 meters wide, by the discharge of waste water to locations below the water intake, etc. At the same time as the location is established, residential districts are also selected, ensuring, in addition to the rational delivery of fuel and raw materials, also maximum convenience of communication with residential districts. Agriculture, directly serving the city, organically enters into its composition and is one of the basic elements of the city. Entering organically into the composition of the socialist city, this suburban agriculture is also included in the single complex of the city's green economy (see Green Plantings). The green economy of the socialist city should ensure: a) the supply of the population, b) the organization for the population of protective zones from harmful industrial enterprises, c) the protection of water intakes from the harmful influence of waste, d) the sanitary-hygienic organization of green masses and squares of the city and within quarters, e) the organization of parks and physical culture squares and finally f) the inclusion of greenery in the architectural composition. With the green economy should be directly linked the irrigation fields and the fields for processing urban waste. In the organization of the city's green economy, the principles of economic calculation can be easily applied by introducing, along with decorative, equally valuable in other respects fruit and berry, industrial and herbaceous species, the organization in protective zones of mushroom growing, beekeeping, fishing, small livestock breeding, poultry farming, by using (under glass) the natural heat of landfills, waste heat from power plants, etc. Protective and sanitary zones, depending on need, are created in the form of green plantings, agricultural lands, vacant lands, as well as by using existing water spaces and green masses. Turning to the question of housing (see Housing), one must recall the state of the housing question in the West. Even 70 years ago F. Engels vividly described the capitalist city: 'With the exception of squares and bourgeois quarters, the city presented itself as a labyrinth of narrow and winding streets with a minimum of light and air, which not only were not cleaned, but served as a dumping ground for filth.' The light-deprived colossi of multi-story houses with courtyard-wells and corridor-streets, without any greenery, are the most common dwellings of city inhabitants. Tight apartments, into which the sun often does not shine, and overcrowding create anti-hygienic living conditions for the vast majority of the city's population, especially its proletarian part. So-called 'bad' quarters, as medical statistics show, are even now foci of various epidemics and increased mortality. At present, the world economic crisis has also created an organic crisis of the capitalist city. This city has advanced municipal technology and is unable to use it because of its high cost; a significant part of the population leaves the too expensive city for the suburbs.

Tens of millions of unemployed, intensified poverty, deprivation, and housing need of the working masses thrown out onto the streets for non-payment of rent for apartments; empty skyscrapers and at the same time thousands of people without shelter; closing of stores and destruction of goods due to lack of buyers against a background of famine and impoverishment—these are the phenomena of the city in the era of imperialism, phenomena that have become daily and characteristic of the capitalist city. Quite differently stands the same housing question in the USSR. As in the first five-year plan, in the second five-year plan the question of housing and the creation of 'necessary conditions for the organization of socialist daily life' is one of the main questions. Housing is brought into a unified system of residential complexes, or enlarged residential quarters. The residential complex is the basic cell of the socialist city and differs both in size, reaching 25-30 hectares, and above all in its internal content from the quarters of the capitalist city. Such a residential complex includes all elements of socio-domestic and cultural service on the principles of maximum socialization, permitted by the current level of technical possibilities. While leaving the population freedom and the possibility of choosing between individual and public forms of socio-domestic and cultural service, the technical and spatial organization of socialized elements aims directly to demonstrate the advantages of socialization, which frees women for socially useful labor, ensures public upbringing for the rising generation, and cultural recreation and domestic service for the population as a whole. Thus, the residential complex includes, in addition to housing, elements of upbringing and education, food and recreation, health-preventive elements, children's playgrounds, kindergartens, nurseries, a club, a primary school, a common dining room, a laundry, supply services, sports grounds, clinics, a green area, etc. The location of buildings is such as to ensure proper and complete solar illumination, through ventilation of all streets, squares, courtyards, and buildings, as well as appropriate sanitary and fire breaks. As a rule, no transit traffic through the quarter is permitted. Isolating the residential complex from this external movement frees its air from dust and exhaust fumes of gasoline and oil from automobiles, which heavily pollute the street air. Prohibition of transit traffic through the residential complex eliminates the danger of collisions between the population and transport, and children can be left freely inside the complex under the supervision of nursery and center staff. Such an organization of the residential complex is at the same time sufficiently economical. Reduced length of the main streets bordering the residential complex makes it possible to improve their paving. The internal streets of residential complexes can be organized in the style of garden drives and paths. The technical basis of this urban planning in the socialist city is the network of streets. It must connect the individual parts of the populated area and the extramunicipal transport routes leading to it, providing the shortest, convenient, and safe paths of communication. Depending on their purpose, these streets can be main, auxiliary, freight, residential, and transit. The width, profile, and paving of the street are determined depending on the intensity of existing or expected traffic on them and the nature of the vehicles. Freight and transport streets should be located in industrial zones. Main streets must provide for fast-moving traffic, and in the interests of transportation and unimpeded movement, the streets should be as straight as possible and in any case without sharp or right angles, and in the interests of public safety, be isolated from crossing with pedestrian traffic. Residential streets should be inside residential complexes and cannot be used, as indicated, for fast or through traffic. To regulate and distribute traffic at the intersection of main streets, squares are formed. The socio-domestic service of the population in the socialist city is built on the principle of networks. The basis is the principle of maximum proximity to the population of public catering, supply, and municipal-domestic enterprises. Enterprises necessary for the daily needs of the population are located directly on the territory of the residential complex. Thus, the public catering network is built on the principle of maximum centralization of production by organizing central kitchens, semi-finished product bases, and decentralization of direct production at the places of consumption in residential complexes, schools, hospitals, etc. The education network is built on the basis of a unified system of theory and practice without separating education from production by creating schools, factory training schools, technical schools, and higher technical educational institutions at the production site or with the inclusion of production elements. The socio-domestic service network is also built on the principle of gradation, i.e., organizing cells in residential complexes—primitive clubs—and combining them into district and city centers with higher forms of cultural and educational work—in clubs, palaces of culture, parks of culture and rest, etc. The basic principle of constructing all systems of municipal and domestic service is the principle of planned distribution of municipal and domestic institutions, based on the planned distribution of the entire population over the entire territory. The same principle is applied to the systems of sanitary-technical equipment of the territories. Rest for the population is ensured by creating special institutions, starting from day-off institutions to parks of culture and rest, places of sanatorium and resort treatment, and rest homes. The planned construction of the socialist city as a single socio-technical organism makes possible the creation of an architectural ensemble of a higher order than the ensemble of all past cities, in contrast to the artistic 'crisis' of capitalist cities. As a result of the crisis of material culture and the decay of capitalist culture, instead of the art of architecture, we now have a continuous 'geometry', the elimination of artistic elements, the reduction of architecture to the organization of utilitarian-technical functions, and the reduction of all the complexity of art to the principles of vulgar materialism. The main characteristic feature of the developing socialist organization and architecture of the socialist city is, on the contrary, the synthetic combination of all technical and artistic means—architecture, sculpture, painting, bas-relief, the extensive use of color and light, the introduction into the architectural composition of green plantings and all other means that make possible the creation of an extremely rich and diverse panorama of the socialist city, taking into account the use of all features of the terrain, water surfaces, greenery, etc. The urban planning of the socialist city must also satisfy the formation of further grand-scale social contacts of the entire population, demonstrations, celebrations. The same tasks are set for socialist urban planning in relation to old cities, the reconstruction of which is more complex than the planning of new ones, since the conditions of the transitional period require special attention to the use of the material fund to accelerate the pace of socialist construction. Thus, a new resettlement of humanity will be carried out with the elimination of both rural neglect, isolation from the world, and wildness, and the unnatural concentration of huge masses in large cities.

S. Gorny. Urban Planning of Buildings. By the planning of a building is meant the architectural design of the requirements imposed on the building as a whole and on each of its rooms separately in order to create the appropriate environment for the most economical execution of the processes that take place or should take place in it. To judge the merits or demerits of the planning of a building, it is first necessary to determine to what extent the shape and size of individual rooms and their mutual arrangement correspond to the course and dimensions of the production and domestic processes taking place in them. Every work process proceeds in a certain sequence and for its execution requires an appropriate environment, equipment, certain human masses and materials. Detailed knowledge of these factors and identification of all their peculiarities is a condition without which rational building planning is impossible. Usually the architect-builder does not fully possess such knowledge and for the correct solution of the task before him he must receive carefully worked-out assignments from the production specialist and use his constant consultation during the design and construction of the building. In practice, builders who have once mastered the requirements for the most appropriate placement of the entire process as well as its individual stages often concentrate in their work on reproducing buildings of a specific purpose. Such specialization creates good mutual understanding between the builder and the production specialist and contributes to the most successful resolution of planning problems. A direct consequence of the dependence of building planning on the nature and characteristics of the processes taking place in it is that a building constructed for one particular purpose cannot be conveniently used for other needs without major reconstruction and alterations. The uniqueness of each process makes it that adapting an existing building for another purpose is always a difficult matter, and often as a result a building is obtained that presents considerable inconveniences for production and requires excessive operating expenses. The development of technology, introducing new work methods and equipment, and changes in living conditions entail changes in the requirements for building planning, as a result of which a building that previously fully met its purpose may cease to do so over time. At the same time, the substantial nature of the construction often does not make it possible to replan or rebuild an existing building; hence conflicts may arise between the requirements of the process and the environment in which they take place. A process can be considered correctly organized only if it proceeds with the least expenditure of strength, means and time on the part of those participating in it. This requirement in building planning finds its reflection in the compactness of the building. This achieves the least loss of time and strength for communication between the center of production and its extreme points. A building with the simplest perimeter, in its configuration approaching a square or circle, provides the most favorable solution in this regard. However, it would be a mistake to think that every process should be fitted into one building with the smallest area; often individual stages of the process, their organization and sequence require not only a building of a certain shape but also their isolation in separate buildings. The conveyor production system is usually associated with a more or less elongated building shape. The completeness and uniqueness of individual production stages, sometimes their harmfulness, serve as a basis for placing individual production shops in separate buildings; however, a certain sequential arrangement of them, their close interconnection must reflect the sequential course of production. In hospital construction, for example, the process of treating various types of patients can take place under different conditions: 1) placing all patients in one building; in this case, along with construction economy, there arises the possibility of serving the largest number of patients with the smallest staff of personnel - such planning for small hospitals is the most advantageous, of course with the risk of transmitting infections; 2) specialization in treatment and care makes it more advisable to place similar patients in special departments - concentrated either in one building or in a limited number of them; 3) with the development of the capacity of departments, strict demarcation of the work of personnel in serving a certain group of patients, as well as for the purpose of eliminating the danger arising from the contact of one type of patients with others, and to provide them with greater rest, the most correct solution for hospital planning may be the placement of each department in special buildings (pavilions), connected by one common idea and economic service (see Hospital). It is impossible to give a general template, and in each individual case all the pros and cons of a particular placement of individual stages of the process must be carefully weighed. The conditions of the site, the intended equipment, the number of participants in the execution of the process, their qualification, the proposed course of production, raw materials and finished product - all this must be taken into account when deciding in how many buildings, of what size, number of stories and in what mutual relationship the production process should be located. Thus, the number and composition of rooms depend on the nature and size of the process, the possibility of dividing it into separate more or less complete stages, the size of its individual constituent parts, convenience of observation, etc. The placement of production premises in a multi-story building often reduces the paths of movement, but at the same time requires great expenditure of energy for lifting goods and people, reduces the cost of construction and decreases the area of land needed for construction. Along with this, in a multi-story building, air exchange through floor slabs and air contamination in the upper floors due to processes taking place in the lower floors is possible, noise increases (sound conductivity) and fire hazard increases, movement on stairs is difficult for people with weakened hearts. The pavilion system, by creating isolation of individual moments of the process, lengthens communication paths, requires a larger number of service personnel, increases the cost of construction and operation of the building as such, but is irreplaceable in cases where it is necessary to isolate particularly harmful moments of the process, for example particularly harmful shops in production, contagious patients in general hospitals. The participation of working masses in each process makes it that along with economic requirements for any building, a number of sanitary-hygienic requirements are also imposed in its planning. These requirements should not only ensure the preservation of the strength and health of people engaged in production, but also create the best conditions for increasing the quality and quantity of their labor output, thereby ensuring the broad participation of working masses in the construction of socialism. In particular, in building planning, requirements regarding the maintenance of the constancy of the qualitative (physical and chemical) composition of air, natural lighting, sound conductivity and cleanliness should find their reflection. Maintaining the constancy of air composition first of all requires appropriate dimensions and volume of individual rooms. The area of individual rooms is determined by both the size and nature of the production and domestic process and special equipment, as well as by the number of people engaged in production. In factory and plant buildings, the first factors play a dominant role, in public buildings the second ones are more important. It is quite impossible to specify uniform sizes of areas and their planning in the first case - given the diversity of forms and sizes of processes taking place in them. As for the second, depending on the nature of their purpose, the area per person in them ranges from 1 m² (public canteens, waiting rooms) to 4.5-5 m² (gymnasiums). Even more important for maintaining the necessary air quality is the volume per person in the room. The amount of air volume required per person depends on the amount of air exchange established in the room, and the latter in turn depends on the presence of natural or artificial ventilation (see Ventilation). The shape of the room depends on its purpose. For example, corridors intended to connect individual rooms always have a long, elongated configuration; their width is dictated by the size and nature of the movement taking place in them: the more intense the movement, the wider the corridor should be. Along with this, a corridor with little movement but in which bulky objects have to be moved and turned should have a width allowing such a turn; for example, a hospital corridor where a bed with a patient has to be turned should have a width of at least 2.5 m.

On the contrary, a residential apartment, which should produce a pleasant impression with its spatial dimensions, should never have an elongated shape: the linear dimensions of a living room should not exceed each other by more than 2 times. A circular shape of a room is quite appropriate where it is necessary to create an even distance of participants from the center of action, for example in theater halls. - In industrial premises, the shape of the room is dictated by the size and shape of the equipment and the course of the process. Requirements regarding illumination-see Illumination. In the orientation of buildings, in certain cases and in U.P., the direction of prevailing winds should be taken into account when their intensity is significant. Sound conductivity as such depends to a greater extent on the construction and finishing of enclosing spaces, but audibility in different points of the room depends very much on both the size of the room and its shape and therefore also depends on U.P. - Finally, the last sanitary requirement that should always be kept in mind is the simplicity of maintaining the cleanliness of the room. Although this point depends to a large extent on the finishing of the room, it should not be forgotten that any angle less than a right angle already creates difficulties for removing contaminants from it, and very sharp angles can sometimes create extremely unfavorable conditions in this regard, and conversely, rounded corners facilitate cleaning and reduce the possibility of contamination. Thus, the U.P. of buildings for public, industrial and other purposes must satisfy quite diverse sanitary-hygienic requirements, and the reliability of checking their adequate fulfillment can be guaranteed only if a sufficiently competent sanitary worker participates in this work. Organizer of the production process, architect-builder, sanitary physician-these are the three parties that can give the most perfect solution to the problem of U.P. of a building. Individual requirements for the standardization of U.P. issues are set forth in the 'Uniform Standards for Building Design', approved by the Standardization Committee under the Council of Labor and Defense (1931) and published in a separate edition (Moscow, 1931).- On the planning of individual types of buildings-see Outpatient Clinic, Auditorium, Hospital, Residence, Operating Room; on individual sanitary-technical aspects-see Ventilation, Illumination, Heating.

i

A. Prokofiev.

See also literature for the article Communal Economy.