Medical-Surgical Academies

Medical-Surgical Academies, higher medical educational institutions founded at the end of the 18th century in St. Petersburg and Moscow in connection with the development of the regular army and the need for physicians for it. Initially, the training of physicians was conducted in large military hospitals in Moscow (since 1707), St. Petersburg and Kronstadt (since 1733). In 1786, these schools received the name of medical-surgical schools. Those who graduated from them acquired the title of physician or assistant physician. In 1798, the medical-surgical schools in St. Petersburg and Moscow were transformed into Medical-Surgical Academies. The Moscow Academy existed for a short time and was closed in 1804 with its students transferred to the St. Petersburg Academy, after which it was reopened in 1808 (see below). The St. Petersburg Academy existed much longer (from 1798 to 1881), from 1798 to 1804, it was under the jurisdiction of the Medical Collegium. The administration of the Academy was entrusted to its professors' conference. There were only 7 departments in the Academy: pathology and therapy, surgery, obstetrics and forensic medicine, anatomy and physiology, botany and pharmacology, chemistry, mathematics and physics. For all departments, besides professors, there were 7 adjuncts, a drawing master, a laboratory assistant, a librarian and 2 assistants. There were 120 students, called pupils in the first two years and students in the senior two years; they were allocated an allowance of 100 rubles per year per person and 8-12 rubles for the purchase of books and teaching aids. The St. Petersburg Land and Admiralty military hospitals served for clinical training. In 1802, the Medical-Surgical Institute, founded in 1783 at the St. Petersburg Kalinkin Hospital, was merged with the St. Petersburg Academy. The students and teachers of the institute were Germans (Russian and foreign subjects); teaching (3-year course) was conducted in German. In 1804, the Academy, coming under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, received a more distinct administrative structure and was expanded due to the closure of the Moscow Academy. The number of state-supported students increased to 160; in addition, there were 'volunteers'. The requirements for applicants regarding their general training were raised; examinations were introduced. For those who graduated from the Academy, the title of candidate of surgery was established; to obtain the title of physician, a one-year internship in a military hospital was required. However, teaching continued to remain at a low level. The Academy was insufficiently provided with clinical material, teaching aids and manuals; the curriculum and teaching methods were outdated: professors read their courses, and students dictated notes. At this time, the well-known Western European scientist Johann Peter Frank (see) was involved in the reorganization of the Academy, appointed as its rector. He, for his time, approached his task broadly. The number of departments and independent courses increased to 15, a sequence in the study of individual sciences was established, the tasks of individual departments were defined, in particular, tasks were set for clinical departments, veterinary and pharmaceutical sciences and military medicine were introduced. The number of students increased to 400. Frank's considerations formed the basis of the Academy's charter approved in 1806. Under the new charter, the Academy was directly subordinate to the Minister of Internal Affairs. The 1806 charter was in effect for only two days, because due to objections from the influential court physician Villiers (see), the effect of this charter was suspended. A new charter, developed by a commission of Professor Zagorsky, was approved in 1808. Much in this charter was borrowed from the 1806 charter, but significant changes were also made in the sense of restricting the rights of the professoriate. At the head of the Academy was its president, directly subordinate to the Minister of Internal Affairs, and at the head of the Moscow branch - a vice-president. The Academy was defined as 'A learned class established for the education of youth in all parts of medical science'. The Academy consisted of three parts: medical, veterinary and pharmaceutical. The Academy was divided into two departments: in St. Petersburg (main) and in Moscow. The number of professors increased to 24, adjuncts also to 24. Teaching in the Russian language was established. The number of students increased to 720. The period of study remained four years, the 5th year was devoted to practice in hospitals. Villiers himself was appointed president of the Academy in 1806, holding this position until 1838. In 1810, the St. Petersburg Medical-Surgical Academy, in connection with the reorganization of ministries, was transferred to the Ministry of National Education, so that in 1822 it would return to the Ministry of Internal Affairs in connection with the new reorganization of ministries. The sole administrator of the Academy throughout this period was its president, Baronet Villiers, who combined in his person the concern for improving teaching with military crudeness. During Villiers' presidency, almost all professors of the Academy were already its former students. In 1835, a fifth year of study was introduced. The Moscow branch of the Medical-Surgical Academy was subordinate to the St. Petersburg Academy through its president. Among the professors of the Moscow branch of the Academy, Germans predominated. The number of students reached 500. Teaching was poorer than in St. Petersburg, for example, there were initially only 2 clinics with 6 beds each, and at the veterinary department there were no 'institutions for practical training of students in treating sick animals and shoeing horses'. Only as a result of Villiers' arrival in Moscow were clinics set up in the Yekaterininskaya Hospital and a number of improvements were undertaken. By the decree of 1837, the Moscow branch of the Academy was 'raised to the status of a separate Academy' and received independent existence, which lasted until 1844, when it was disbanded. In 1838, the St. Petersburg Academy was subordinated to the Minister of War. The official reason for the transfer was that the Academy trained military physicians, but, judging by some indications (Pirogov, Chistovich, Zdekauev), the real reason was the government's desire 'to pay special attention to the moral upbringing of the students'. Throughout the existence of the St. Petersburg Academy, one can note frequent manifestations of dissatisfaction among its students, sometimes leading to disorders. In the early periods of the Academy's existence, disorders arose on the basis of dissatisfaction with the food or examination misunderstandings, but then other reasons also became mixed in. The cause of strict disciplinary punishments were sometimes 'absurd news that could produce unpleasant influences and spread false rumors'. Unrest and demonstrations among students led both to collective action and to individual, sometimes very sharp, protests against individual members of the administration and professors. Thus, in 1838, student Sochinsky attempted to attack Professor Nechaev. The reprisals against 'rebels' were harsh: severe confinement, assignment to the troops; in individual cases, it went to the point of the шпицрутен (a type of corporal punishment), as for example with Sochinsky, when the execution ended in his death. With the transfer of the St. Petersburg Academy to the jurisdiction of the Ministry of War, the closest administrators of the Academy were specially appointed trustees. The first of them was General Kleinmikhel, director of the department of military settlements, the right hand of Arakcheev, who saw his task in 'ennobling the Academy by selecting students, introducing good conduct among students and military discipline'. Punishments for students were now assigned not by the charter, but by 'highest command', i.e. more severe. But supervision over the Academy was not limited to trustees alone. The head of the famous Third Division, Dubbelt, demanded to review students' lecture notes. At the same time, however, certain improvements occurred in the academic life, albeit in very modest dimensions. The attachment in 1840 of a second military-land hospital to the Academy improved the clinical training of students. In 1839, the Academy was permitted to publish the 'Journal of Medical and Natural Sciences', which in subsequent years appeared under the name first 'Notes on Medical Sciences, published at the Medical-Surgical Academy', and then 'Academic Acts'. The next period in the history of the Academy, connected with the era of the 1860s, is the best in its life. In 1857, Professor Dubovitsky was appointed president of the Academy, and at the same time direct subordination of the president to the Minister of War was restored. Dubovitsky was entrusted with the task of developing a new charter, 'not restricting oneself in one's assumptions, as long as these assumptions tended to the true benefit of the Academy and could generally put medical science in the country at the same degree of perfection as it is in France and Germany'. In cooperation with Professors Zimin, Glebov and others, with the favorable attitude of War Minister Milyutin, Dubovitsky outlined and carried out the reorganization of the Academy. In accordance with the scientific views of the time, teaching of natural sciences in the Academy was significantly expanded, a Natural History Institute was created, the foundation was laid for an Anatomical-Physiological Institute, the number of departments in natural sciences and hygiene was increased, their staffs were expanded, new buildings were constructed for the Natural History Institute, a number of cabinets, laboratories and museums were newly created. Clinical teaching was also revised. New clinical departments (eye, nervous, mental diseases, etc.) were established.

For the expansion of clinics, the Mikhailovskaya Clinical Hospital was rebuilt. The main hospital underwent major reconstruction and replanning. A number of young talents were appointed to teaching positions, such as Balinsky, Ilyinsky, Yakubovich, Rudnev, Botkin, Sechenov, Yunger, Beckers, and others. To create a permanent and reliable source for replenishing the teaching staff, the Institute for the Advancement of Physicians was established. In 1859, the position of privat-docent was instituted. The reorganization of educational affairs at the Academy created a large influx of students, the number of which sometimes reached 1,600. The 1870s in the history of the Academy are associated with the development of the revolutionary movement among students, similar to what was happening in other higher educational institutions. To combat the sentiments that had developed in the Academy, the government established in 1874 a Commission for the Administration of the Academy's Affairs. The Chief Military Medical Inspector and the Academy's Conference were removed from the administration of the Academy, and the chairmen of the Commission were line generals. The Russo-Turkish War, which created a need for accelerated graduations of military physicians, further disrupted the life of the Academy. In 1881, the Medico-Surgical Academy was reorganized and received the name of the Military Medical Academy (see Military Medical Academy). During its 83 years of existence, the St. Petersburg Academy, the first Russian higher medical school, played a significant role as a scientific institution, despite the unfavorable conditions described above. Among its professors were outstanding scientists of their time: Gruber V. L. (anatomy), Rudnev M. M. (pathological anatomy), Sechenov I. M. (physiology), Pashutin V. V. (general pathology), Botkin S. P. (therapy), Sklifosovsky N. V. (surgery), Zinin N. N. (chemistry), Brandt F. F. (zoology), Balinsky I. M. (psychiatrist), Dobroslavin A. P. (hygiene), Pirogov N. I. (surgery), and others. The Vilna Medico-Surgical Academy was established in 1832 by reorganizing the medical faculty of Vilna University and was closed in 1842.