School

School, an educational institution for children and adolescents of school age, which in the USSR covers children from 8 to 18 years. I. Basic principles of organization of the Soviet school: universal compulsory free education, unity of the educational system (unified school), polytechnicalism, so

Co-educational instruction of children of both sexes, instruction in the native language. The Soviet School, in its purpose, sharply differs from the schools of capitalist countries, where the school is in the hands of the bourgeoisie an instrument of subjugation of the working class. 'The entire old school, being completely imbued with a class spirit, gave knowledge only to the children of the bourgeoisie. Every word of it was falsified in the interests of the bourgeoisie. In these schools, the younger generation of workers and peasants was not so much educated as drilled in the interests of the same bourgeoisie' (Lenin, Collected Works, Vol. XXV, p. 386). The task of the Soviet power is to transform the school 'from an instrument of class domination by the bourgeoisie into an instrument for the complete elimination of the division of society into classes, into an instrument for the communist transformation of society. During the period of the dictatorship of the proletariat, i.e., during the period of preparing conditions making possible the full implementation of communism, the school must be not only a transmitter of the principle of communism in general, but also a transmitter of the ideological, organizational, and educational influence of the proletariat on the semi-proletariat and non-proletarian strata of the working masses for the purpose of educating a generation capable of finally establishing communism' [from the program of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)]. In tsarist Russia, 7,800,000 children were taught in elementary and secondary schools, of which only a small part were children of workers and peasants. In the years of the civil war and devastation, 9,780,000 children were taught in schools, by the beginning of the first five-year plan-over 12,000,000 children, and between 1930 and 1934, the number of children of workers, collective farmers, and working people increased from 17,600,000 to 22,000,000 in the elementary and secondary schools of our Union. By the end of the first five-year plan, the directive on universal compulsory primary education in the Union was fulfilled [resolution of the CC of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of May 25, 1930], characterized by Stalin at the XVI Party Congress in 1930 as 'a decisive step in the cultural revolution'. In 1933, primary education was basically completed in all union republics, and of the number of children in urban schools, a significant part (from 70% to 90% in different places) was covered by seven-year education, and the school with ten-year education is successfully developing. In the Union, school instruction is conducted in 70 languages. In the USSR, three types of general education schools were established by a resolution of the Council of People's Commissars of May 15, 1934: primary school with four grades (from 1st to 4th inclusive), incomplete secondary school with seven grades (from 1st to 7th inclusive), and secondary school with ten grades (from 1st to 10th inclusive). The total number of students in the USSR in 1935 was 25.6 million, in 1936 coverage of 27.9 million is planned, and in 1937, 29.9 million students. The contingent of students in primary, incomplete secondary, and secondary schools in the RSFSR in 1935 compared with the data of 1934 increased by 9.4%, and for 1936 an increase of students by 10.7% is planned (the absolute increase in students is 1,848,500). A particularly large enrollment of students is planned for 1937 in the upper grades, which will ensure the further development and consolidation of the complete secondary school with a 10-year course of study. The content and methods of work of the Soviet school are based on the principles of polytechnical education. The foundation of the Soviet education system is Marx's 'triad': 'By education one must understand three things: 1. Intellectual education. 2. Physical development, which is given by gymnastic schools and military exercises. 3. Polytechnical education, which introduces the general scientific principles of all production processes and at the same time gives the child and teenager practical skills in handling the elementary tools of all productions.' Developing and specifying these provisions, Lenin pointed out that 'one cannot imagine an ideal of future society without combining the education of the younger generation with productive labor: neither education nor education without productive labor, nor productive labor without parallel education could be raised to the height required by the modern level of technology and the state of scientific knowledge' (Vol. II, p. 288). 'One can become a communist only when one enriches one's memory with the knowledge of all the wealth created by humanity...' 'And our school must give the youth the foundations of knowledge, teach them the ability to develop communist views themselves, must make them educated people' (Lenin, Collected Works, Vol. XXV, pp. 388 and 394). Lenin's comments on Krupskaya's theses on polytechnical education and his speech at the III All-Russian Congress of the Komsomol on October 2, 1920, served as the basis for developing the principles of the Soviet school. However, in the programs, methods, and content of school work until 1931, along with achievements in the field of combining education with productive labor and public work, there were a number of significant shortcomings condemned by the resolution of the CC of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of September 5, 1931. The school did not provide a sufficient amount of general educational knowledge, unsatisfactorily resolved the task of preparing for technical schools and higher education fully literate people who have a good command of the fundamentals of sciences; among the methods of work used, there was also the 'project method', stemming from the anti-Lenin theory of the 'withering away of the school'. The role of the teacher was sharply reduced, there were no clear curricula, discipline in the school was weak, the entire internal routine in the school was sharply disrupted. 'Any attempt to separate the polytechnicalization of the school from the systematic and firm assimilation of sciences, especially physics, chemistry, and mathematics, the teaching of which must be based on strictly defined and carefully developed programs, curricula and conducted according to strictly established schedules, represents a gross distortion of the idea of a polytechnical school' [from the resolution of the CC of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) 'On Primary and Secondary School' of September 5, 1931]. A special resolution of the CC of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) 'On Curricula and Regime in Primary and Secondary School' of August 29, 1932, gave specific guiding instructions for developing curricula, organizing educational work, strengthening the school regime, training teaching staff, and reorganizing the seven-year polytechnical school into a ten-year one. These resolutions mobilized party and Soviet organizations to fight for improving the quality of school work. In 1932, new subject programs were introduced, giving a systematic presentation of knowledge, connecting theoretical disciplines with life and socialist construction, ensuring a high general education for students. The basis of the educational process in the school became the organized school lesson, individual and systematic accounting of students' knowledge and test examinations. Proven teaching methods began to be applied, the specific weight of the teacher in the school increased, and a decisive struggle was announced for improving discipline in the school. The first years of the 2nd five-year plan and especially 1935 marked a general improvement in the well-being of the school and a rapid growth and improvement of its material base, which had long lagged behind the general pace of socialist construction. As early as 1931, it was noted that 'the material base of the school-construction of new buildings, repair of existing ones, production of educational equipment and teaching aids-is extremely insufficient and has become one of the obstacles to improving the work of the school' [resolution of the CC of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of September 5, 1931]. The first broad measure was the publication of stable textbooks, without which it is impossible to conduct a systematic course in basic sciences (chemistry, physics, mathematics, geography, native language, etc.). These textbooks in content meet the established programs and in external design satisfy a number of hygienic requirements in terms of font, format, illustrations, etc. In 1934, schools in the RSFSR received 42 million textbooks, in 1935-72 million. Between 1933 and 1935, over 200 million textbooks were published, and half of them were non-Russian textbooks for the peoples of the USSR. By a resolution of the Council of People's Commissars and the CC of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of August 7, 1935, basic guidelines were given for the further development of publishing and the release of quality products; free trade in textbooks at nominal prices was opened. These measures ensure their mass character and distribution. Special attention is paid to the quality of textbooks. Large funds have been allocated for the compilation of textbooks, first of all in the Russian language and history. The basis for the development of history textbooks is the comments of Comrades Stalin, Zhdanov, and Kirov of August 9, 1934. A special government commission under the chairmanship of Zhdanov is reviewing history textbooks and a competition has been announced for the compilation of new history textbooks [resolution of the Council of People's Commissars and the CC of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of February 3, 1936]. Great attention is paid to the supply of schools with writing materials. The resolution of the Council of People's Commissars and the CC of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of September 14, 1935 provides for a significant quantitative increase in writing materials; obliges industrial organizations to draw up a firm schedule for the release of a number of improved quality aids: notebooks, pens, fountain pens, ink, erasers, chalk, etc., as well as items for storing these aids-bags, backpacks, briefcases, etc. In 1936, the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR plans a program for the production of 1,323 million notebooks, 275 million pencils, 650 million pens. Special trusts have been organized for the production of school writing materials, as well as teaching aids and educational equipment. II.

School construction and improvement are the main measures ensuring the material needs of schools. A grand reform of this matter was initiated in 1935 on the personal initiative of Comrade Stalin. During the years of the first and second five-year plans, the number of schools increased from 118,000 to 167,000, mainly in rural areas. "The territorial placement of schools did not coincide with the urgent needs of cities and worker settlements, and school construction lagged behind the growth of student enrollment" [from the resolution of the Council of People's Commissars and the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) on school construction in cities of November 22, 1935]. As a result, two- and three-shift classes were created in schools. By the same resolution of the Council of People's Commissars and the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), it was ordered to launch mass construction of new schools in cities with the calculation that in the 1936 academic year to eliminate third shifts and so-called "wandering classes" that did not have their own permanent educational premises, as well as the practice of classes in schools without a single day off (continuous schedule). In 1937, in large cities, and in 1938, in all cities of the Union, second shifts will be completely eliminated. In 1935, 533 schools were built in the USSR in cities and worker settlements for 286,000 student places, and 2,829 schools in rural areas for 513,000 student places. In 1936, by a resolution of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR and the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of March 6, 1936, construction was launched in cities and worker settlements of the USSR for 1,507 schools with 890,530 student places, and in rural areas - 2,802 schools with 568,865 student places. In addition to this, 72 new buildings of FZU (schools of factory and plant apprenticeship) were transferred for school use, and old, specially built school buildings that were under the jurisdiction of various departments and institutions and were not being used for their intended purpose are being returned. Special budgets for school construction and a firm procedure for the allocation of funds have been established; capital investments in school construction reached 910 million rubles in 1936 compared to 338 million rubles in 1935 and are mainly directed to the construction of schools in those cities where there is a high level of shift work. Special school construction administrations have been organized under the People's Commissariats for Education, and departments for school construction have been established locally, which oversee this construction. The unplanned nature has been eliminated and a procedure for building schools according to standard designs approved in the center has been established, which is also a guarantee of improving the quality of work. The implementation of the measures of the party and government taken with regard to schools in the first years of the second five-year plan is a vivid example of the growth of cultural needs, possible only under socialism. The growth in the construction of new schools during the years of the second five-year plan is an unprecedented fact in world history, just as the growth of factories and plants of our country during the period of industrialization. This construction, placing the masses in conditions of single-shift classes in fully equipped and non-overcrowded premises, not only improves the quality of the pedagogical process but also increases the effectiveness of health work. Therefore, the State Sanitary Inspection actively participates in the construction of new schools through consultations in the process of developing projects and sanitary expertise. The sanitary requirements for the construction of school buildings consist in the following: the school building must be provided with a land plot of sufficient size, on which both pedagogical and health work is carried out; the school building, in its layout, construction, and sanitary-technical installations, must meet a number of specific conditions arising from the peculiarities of the educational process and the peculiarities of the physiology of children and adolescents. This is reflected in the requirements for the selection of premises and their size (area, volume), organization of space, lighting, heating, water supply, taking into account the correct schedule of children's movement in the building and easy access to outdoor air. The area and volume indicators used in practice are mainly subject to production (pedagogical) requirements and are limited by economic considerations. Hygienic regulations introduce a number of corrective moments ensuring air quality, lighting, cleanliness, etc. In classrooms for younger schoolchildren, an area of at least 1.25 m² per student is provided, in classrooms for older children - at least 1.5 m², in laboratories - 1.75 m², in workshops - from 3 m² to 5 m² depending on the nature of work in the latter, in the gymnasium - 4.5 m² per student, in the school cafeteria - 0.65 m², in the recreation hall - 0.5 m², recreational corridors - with a total area of at least half the area of adjacent classrooms, washrooms with toilets - at a rate of 0.20 m² per child, cloakrooms - 0.25 m². Then premises are allocated for the work of service personnel: office, director's office, medical and pedagogical offices, room for technical personnel, room for children's public organizations, and a number of auxiliary rooms for storing equipment and teaching aids. Residential premises for the director and school janitor are also allocated at schools, meeting the general requirements of housing and communal hygiene and having completely separate entrances and land plots (yards). The main types of school buildings (in new construction in 1935-1936): in cities - schools for 880, 400 and 280 places, in rural areas - for 280, 160 and 80 places. In worker settlements, large state farms and collective farms, schools for 880 and 400 people are also built. Requirements for the sanitary improvement of the building consist in the installation of special ventilation and heating systems in school buildings. At present, water and stove heating systems and various supply and exhaust ventilation systems are used, of which the most effective from a hygienic point of view is the ventilation system that ensures effective exhaust and simultaneous supply of outdoor unheated air that enters directly into the classroom during classes through special channels (boxes) with numerous holes, which determines the low speed of its movement. The possibility of ventilation is ensured by the installation of easily openable windows, transoms, and vents; for cross-ventilation of classrooms, transoms are installed in internal walls for communication with one-sided well-lit corridors. Fresh air should be supplied to the school clean, dust-free, from a well-organized school area separated from nearby properties by a green zone. The land area of the school should be sufficient for organizing educational and production work for children, for sports grounds, a farm yard, and necessarily green plantings. The total area of the plot for the school is determined at 35-40 and not less than 25 m² per student. Approximate set of plot elements and their minimum sizes for a city school for 880 children: area for construction - 4,400 m² (no more than 20% of the total area), area for sports grounds for games and activities - 7,040 m² (8 m² per student), health-improving areas for organizing classes for outdoor activities (3-4 classes of 60 m² each) and for installing a solarium, showers - 2,024 m² (2.3 m²), area for organizing classes in natural sciences, experimental garden, flower garden, fruit garden, poultry house, rabbitry, etc. - 3,960 m² (4.5 m²), additional green plantings, fences, decorative flower beds, etc. - 3,520 m² (4.0 m²), farm yard - approx. 1,060 m². In areas without central sewerage, it is recommended to allocate additional area for local treatment facilities in the form of irrigation fields (10 m² per student). For schools in rural areas, additional area is also allocated for organizing a subsidiary farm: experimental field, vegetable garden, poultry house, etc. The school must be provided with a water supply with a sufficient number of taps and devices to meet the sanitary needs of the building and the area (hydrants, short hoses, fire hoses, etc.); mandatory sanitary installations are: flush toilets, washbasins, shower installations, drinking fountains. Shower installations at the solarium, decorative fountains, swimming pools, etc. are also arranged on the site. Lighting in schools (natural and artificial) must first of all provide uniform and sufficient illumination of work places and at the same time ensure the absence of dark or at least shaded spaces and corners throughout the building. The daylight coefficient in classrooms is equal to 1% of the illumination of open places and the light coefficient is 1:5 with the height of the upper edge of the windows above the floor equal to half the depth (width) of the classroom. Artificial lighting in classrooms should provide uniform illumination of work places and not cause glare and sharp shadows, therefore the fixtures are given reflected or semi-reflected.

Standards of illumination for workplaces in school premises: all educational premises, classrooms, laboratories, reading rooms - 75 lux, all service and auxiliary premises (teacher's room, medical room, buffet, head of educational department, etc.) - 50 lux, halls and recreational corridors - 30 lux, service passages and staircases - 15 lux, restrooms, vestibules, shower rooms - 25 lux. Equipment of S. consists of: stationary equipment with various sanitary-technical devices and installations, as well as wall storage cabinets (cupboards) for teaching aids and materials, products, equipment, etc.; portable equipment of S. with furniture (see Furniture) and visual teaching aids (books, atlases, tables, disassembled models, layouts, etc.). III. Organization of the school regime. Organization of the school academic year and school regime is expressed mainly in establishing firm standards regarding the duration of classes and breaks between them, distribution of educational, production and public workloads, and establishing rules of conduct and regime for children in school and outside of school. Basic standards [according to decrees of the SNK and CC VKP(b) of 3/IX 1935 and decrees of CC VKP(b) of 5/IX 1931 and the typical schedule and workload norms of two people's commissariats]: 1. Beginning of the academic year in all S. of the Union - September 1, end in the first three grades - June 1, in grades 4-7 - June 10 and in grades 8-10 - June 20. 2. Winter holidays - from December 30 to January 10, spring holidays - for 6 days. 3. From the 1935/36 academic year, the number of daily class lessons: in the first four grades - 4 lessons per day (in the 4th grade, two days a week with 5 lessons are allowed), in grades 5-10 - 5 lessons (and two days a week with 6 lessons). In union and autonomous republics, as well as in national S. of the RSFSR starting from the 5th grade, one additional sixth lesson per week is allowed for additional study of the Russian language and literature. 4. Duration of breaks: first, third and fourth - 10 min., second - 30 min., allowing in individual cases the duration of the second and third breaks to be 20 min. each. 5. Beginning of daily classes for primary and secondary S. - no earlier than 8₁₂ in the morning. 6. End of academic classes in two-shift S. for children of the first two grades - no later than 8 p.m., for children of other grades - no later than 9 p.m. 7. Total workload by all types of public work should not exceed: Age In a decade In a day For children 8-10 years ..... » » 11-13 » ...... ь » 14-16 »...... 4 hours 6 » 8 » 1 hour IV. » 2 » 8. Duration of children's meetings should not exceed for children 8-9 years - 30 min., 10-11 years - 1 hour, 12-13 years - 1.5 hours, 14-16 years - 2 hours. 9. Total duration of homework at home: for schoolchildren of grades 1 and 2 - 30-45 min., for schoolchildren of grades 3 and 4 - 1 hour and for schoolchildren of higher grades - 1.5 hours per day. School regime and rules of conduct for children in S. and outside of it are included in the general school statute for each type of III. (draft statute for each type of S. should be approved in 1936). The statute has a categorical and mandatory character for students and is the main document defining the purpose and tasks, organizational structure, academic regime and basic internal order of S. and rules of conduct. According to the directive of CC VKP(b) 'The basis of rules of conduct for students is: strict and conscious observance of discipline, polite attitude toward teachers, comrades and elders, instilling cultural skills, careful attitude toward school and public property, as well as measures for decisive struggle with manifestations of hooliganism and anti-social acts among children'. All these qualities must be possessed by every conscious citizen of the Soviet Union, educated in our Soviet III., which is a powerful instrument for educating and re-educating the broadest masses of the population. From the group of workers placed at the head of S., among whom there is also a school doctor, depends the correct organization of all pedagogical, educational and health-improving work of S., aimed at educating capable, cheerful and healthy personnel of our country. Hygienic justifications of the daily regime of a student are established on the basis of data: anat.-physiol. peculiarities of children, accounting for cultural-domestic conditions, character of educational-labor load, accounting for seasons of the year and meteorological factors. The basic requirements are: alternation in time of moments of work and rest, sleep and food in specially organized conditions of enclosed premises - S., apartment, club, etc. - and outside of them in the open air on the school grounds, in extracurricular institutions, parks of culture and rest, tourist bases, etc. under the direct supervision of adults: teachers, educators, pioneer leaders, parents, etc. Long stay of children in the fresh air currently takes place mainly in conditions of summer stay of children in pioneer camps, in children's sections of parks of culture and rest, school summer colonies and grounds, as well as recently in conditions of winter and spring holidays in the form of excursions and sports entertainment. In carrying out the school regime, the most important is to implement: observance of the established duration of lessons and breaks between them, organization of hot breakfasts in schools (see Nutrition) and systematic stay of children in the air during breaks, conducting lessons on nature study and physical education in the fresh air, on specially organized grounds on school premises, as well as organization of differentiated regime for physically weakened children. Experience in organizing such 'health-improving' groups in conditions of mass S. showed that children's health strengthens and their capacity for work increases. Children are not separated from their family and from ordinary school life and studies and are for a long time under observation and control of medical and pedagogical personnel of S. For these groups, extended stay in S., additional nutrition, daytime rest - sleep in the open air, walks and classes in the open air are organized. Example regime for health-improving groups in winter time (for 1st, 2nd and 3rd years of study): 7-8 a.m. - getting up, washing, breakfast, road to S. 8-8:20 a.m. - preventive examination by nurse, morning exercises, shower. 8:20-9:50 a.m. - two class lessons with a 10 min. break. 9:50-10:10 a.m. - breakfast. 10:10-12 p.m. - classes in the open air with breaks for games and walks. 12-12:10 p.m. - break. 12:10-2 p.m. - walk. 2-2:20 p.m. - lunch. 2:20-4 p.m. - lying in the open air (on the veranda). 4-4:15 p.m. - afternoon snack (milk or tea). 4:15-5:15 p.m. - preparing lessons, pioneer work. 5:15-6 p.m. - individual classes, preferably in the open air. 6-6:15 p.m. - going home. 7-7:30 p.m. - dinner. 8:30-9 p.m. - sleep. IV. Medical service of S. in its modern stage of development is in the USSR a factor of health improvement and strengthening of the rising generation, and S. is one of the strongholds of medical activity. Tasks of medical service for schoolchildren consist in providing differentiated medical help in institutions of hospital and non-hospital network of health-improving institutions, in organizing and carrying out systematic medical service for schoolchildren in S. itself and in medical help at home. In relation to S., tasks of medical service consist in guiding the organization of health-improving measures, carrying out current and preventive sanitary control over S. and other places where children and adolescents stay. Implementation of these tasks requires comprehensive medical knowledge and specializations, among which in relation to organized child population the specialties of pediatrician and sanitary doctor serving directly S. and other children's institutions acquire special significance. The first receive training in special pediatric departments, the second - in sanitary faculties of medical institutes. Increased requirements for sanitary improvement of populated places and specific requirements for organization of children's institutions in them, the grand scale of new school construction and the prospect of further development of specialized construction of a network of preschool and extracurricular children's institutions of various types have created the need for differentiated training of sanitary doctors who can implement the requirements of deep sanitary supervision and control over planning, construction, sanitary improvement and equipment of S. and other children's institutions. In development of the decree of SNK RSFSR of 20/III 1934 on organization of state sanitary inspection in all regions (provinces) and large cities, special positions of state school-sanitary inspectors have been introduced. In rural districts, however, sanitary supervision over all objects of sanitary observation is still carried out by the general district state sanitary inspector. School-sanitary inspectors are in the system of the State Sanitary Inspection (NKZdrav, kray-, obl-, gorzdravs). Pediatricians serving healthy and sick child in educational institutions, at home and in the outpatient clinic, in the hospital and in the network of health-improving institutions are under the jurisdiction of the departments (sections) of hospital assistance and protection of health of children and adolescents of NKZdr. and kray-, obl-, gor-zdravotdels. Pediatrician in S.

(school physician) together with the OZDiP sister organizes the entire set of measures for OZDiP in the School, guided by the regulations and instructions of the People's Commissariat of Health of the RSFSR on the work of the pediatrician in the School (dated 20/II and 28/VI 1935). The content of the physician's work in the School in recent times has been directed toward strengthening medical service and guidance of sanitary work, as opposed to the past deviations toward physicians' excessive involvement in pedagogical work in the School. Medical service for schoolchildren in the School consists of: systematic observation of the health and psycho-physical development of children, providing medical assistance to children in need through a system of measures known as dispensarization (see Dispensarization), guidance of health-improving work in the School along the lines of creating sanitary-hygienic conditions for the educational and upbringing work with children, establishing a hygienic regimen and in particular the nutrition of children in the School, control over the organization of physical education in the School, daily supervision of the sanitary condition of the school building and school grounds, guidance in carrying out sanitary culture and sanitary knowledge among children, teachers, and service personnel in the School. The school pediatrician is an initiative organizer and implementer of preventive and health-improving measures. Having an assistant in the person of the OZDiP school sister (positions were established in 1931), he organizes the school community and teachers, influences parents, teachers, and the school administration with his authority and knowledge. Data on the health status and physical development, which the physician obtains as a result of medical examination of children, should help the School properly organize work along the lines of forming classes at the beginning of the school year, organizing examinations, professional selection and orientation, selection of children for auxiliary institutions, etc. Timely submission of relevant materials is the main task of the physician working in the School, as this material helps to more properly organize the educational and auxiliary work. In his work, the school pediatrician relies on existing organizations for medical and medical-prophylactic care for children and on health-improving institutions within the OZDiP system. To strengthen medical service for children's institutions in rural areas, district OZDiP sisters and OZDiP medical posts are introduced in small cities, consisting of 2-3 physicians working in contact with the local medical organization and organizing all work on OZDiP in the city and nearby rural areas. In cities, the school pediatrician relies in his work on children's medical-prophylactic outpatient clinics, children's polyclinics, or children's departments of unified dispensaries. The latter are methodological centers for OZDiP work, uniting on the basis of a unified plan the medical service for sick and healthy children through the efforts of pediatricians of children's institutions, pediatricians providing home care, and specialist physicians providing mainly outpatient care to children, as well as those making home visits and consultations to children's institutions (psychoneurologists, dental physicians, otolaryngologists, ophthalmologists, etc.). In the fight to reduce childhood morbidity, the school physician relies on the sanitary-epidemiological organization, with whose help, depending on epidemiological indicators, he conducts special preventive vaccinations in the School (against scarlet fever, diphtheria, typhoid fever, etc.), maintains systematic notification accounting of morbidity among children, carries out special sanitary measures (quarantine, disinfection, disinfestation, etc.), imposes special sanitary requirements and rules on the School for combating childhood infections. While conducting current sanitary supervision and guiding sanitary work in the School, the school pediatrician and school sister consult with the state school sanitary inspector on all complex issues of school hygiene and sanitation, who helps them organize sanitary work in the School, using all the rights of state control (application of measures of administrative punishment, referral of the case to the prosecutor, closure of the institution, etc.). In addition, planned systematic control is carried out over the School by the organs of the State Sanitary Inspection (in cities - by the state school sanitary inspector, in rural areas - by the district state sanitary inspector) over the fulfillment by the school administration and teachers of the established sanitary-hygienic and anti-epidemic requirements, rules, and measures in the School. Responsibility for carrying out these measures in the School, according to the school charter and regulations on the state school sanitary inspection, lies with the director and the administrative-pedagogical personnel of the School. The work of the state school sanitary inspector in carrying out preventive sanitary control over the School takes place outside the school and is connected with all organizations dealing with issues of planning and construction, supply and organization of the School: with departments of public education or school departments of other departments under whose jurisdiction the School is located, with departments of municipal improvement, construction control, architectural organizations, with industrial organizations producing sanitary equipment, educational equipment, etc. In addition, the school sanitary inspector, according to the instructions for his work (Instruction No. 29/37 of the People's Commissariat of Health dated 14/II 1935), develops sanitary rules and instructional materials on issues of school sanitation and hygiene, organizes sanitary inspections, maintains systematic accounting of the sanitary condition of the School network, introduces sanitary certification of objects. V. School hygiene as a separate branch of hygienic knowledge covers four sections: 1. Study of the conditions of the educational-upbringing process in children's institutions and development of standards, hygienic requirements and conditions to ensure the health and proper psycho-physical development of children and adolescents. 2. Development of requirements for the organization of the material environment in schools and other children's institutions, as well as for the organization of home living conditions of children, on which depends the proper organization of educational-upbringing and health-improving work with children. 3. Development of hygienic substantiation of the child's daily regimen (in the School, in the home environment, and in conditions of extracurricular work with children) and establishment of sanitary-hygienic measures for the organization of the educational-upbringing process itself: regulation of classes according to their duration and difficulty of assimilation, evaluation of teaching methods, hygienic organization of school lessons, school examinations, vacation breaks, physical education, sports, etc., which in the aggregate lead to increasing the effectiveness of perception and academic performance of children. 4. Formulation of requirements for the organization: hygienic education of children and teachers, teaching of hygienic knowledge to children, teachers and educators, propaganda of sanitary culture among children and adults as the main prerequisites for raising personal and public hygiene of children to a high level and for the successful fight against childhood morbidity. A connection has been proven between morbidity and the inadequate organization of the school's material environment (in particular, insufficiently adequate nutrition and air), as well as an incorrect regimen of classes. Regulation of conditions of school work and identification of factors of adverse effect of the school on children's health cannot by themselves, under the conditions of the capitalist system, due to the internal contradictions of this system, change the situation of schools covering proletarian and semi-proletarian circles of the population. Under the conditions of a socialist state, where all efforts are directed toward raising a healthy new generation, enormous attention is paid to such an organization of the school environment that would be a factor in improving the health of broad contingents of children; measures in school hygiene, being a matter of the state, provide for covering the child with health-improving measures both on all successive stages of his passage through the system of public educational-upbringing institutions (nurseries, kindergartens, extracurricular institutions) and in conditions of the home environment. The School and the family in the USSR represent a synthesis of educational and educational systems. The Soviet School, transformed by the October Revolution 'into an instrument for the complete elimination of the division of society into classes, into an instrument for the communist transformation of society' [from the program of the VKP(b)], bears responsibility for both school and extracurricular upbringing of the rising generations. The system of extracurricular upbringing of children and adolescents has given rise to a number of unique institutions (palaces of pioneers, children's technical stations, sports and physical culture institutions, children's cinemas, theaters, etc.), which are connected with the school. This has expanded the range of objects studied by school hygiene. The range of issues falling within the scope of school hygiene is very broad; it includes primarily: hygiene of the pedagogical process (particularly in the field of polytechnicism); issues of physical education and culture, personal and public hygiene of children and adolescents, methodology of medical service for children's institutions; measures to combat childhood infections, sanitary-hygienic regimen of children, sanitary regimen of school premises, school grounds, sanitary care of the building, equipment, teaching aids, etc. The development of school hygiene as a science.

At the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, individual scattered requirements and rules concerning the personal hygiene of children and school hygiene were systematized by I. Frank in one chapter of his major work ('System of Medical Assistance', 1788-1819). In the mid-19th century, R. Virchow and others pointed out that the number of sick students is very significant and that certain forms of diseases occur most frequently, which with good reason can be called 'school diseases.' Different authors included: anemia, development of nearsightedness, nervous disorders, curvature of the spine, etc. Questions of school hygiene were discussed at a number of congresses and meetings, public organizations emerged, and in Russia questions were systematically discussed in the Pirogov Society and at provincial congresses of zemstvo doctors. The results were also brought to government agencies (for example, Virchow's report to the Prussian ministry, materials on child legislation of the Reina Commission in Russia). However, elimination of defects in school life and the fight against childhood illness, which were a direct consequence of the capitalist system, the lack of state care for children, and the low living standard of the working masses, could not and cannot be carried out under capitalism. The legacy of the last century in the field of school hygiene, expressed in a number of major works (Uffelman, Selter, Burgershtein, Netolitsky, Erisman, etc.), which summarized the rich experience of observations and scientific research, strengthened school hygiene as a special branch of hygiene, which in our Union received a solid foundation for further development. The founder of school hygiene in our country is Prof. Erisman, who gave a number of scientifically substantiated provisions of school hygiene, which served as the basis for the further work of a number of sanitary doctors who later applied their knowledge and rich experience in the conditions of Soviet reality. A consistent advocate of school hygiene ideas is D. L. Bekaryukov (1861-1934), who developed the first comprehensive guide to school hygiene in the Russian language (ed. 1907 and 1914) and, under Soviet conditions, directed practical work on OZDiP in Moscow and the scientific development of a number of school hygiene problems (artificial lighting, ventilation, etc.). The views of Erisman and Bekaryukov on school hygiene issues were much broader than the level of their contemporaries. These authors already at the end of the 19th century widely considered the tasks of school hygiene. Erisman proposed to rename school hygiene to 'hygiene of education,' Bekaryukov proved that 'limiting the role of school hygiene to questions of the external environment does not withstand criticism, and that the voice of hygiene must be heard and taken into account on all issues concerning education and upbringing, and in particular on issues of educational programs, methods and techniques of education and upbringing,' and considered it necessary for the scientific substantiation of school hygiene 'to clarify the physiological and psychological laws according to which the correct and comprehensive development of the human organism occurs and which must undoubtedly be taken into account in the construction and practical implementation of education systems.' In the system of university medical education, school hygiene was reflected in the courses of general hygiene taught in Russia by Khlopin, Erisman, Orlov, Ignatov, Diatroptov, and others, and as separate courses in advanced courses for doctors. In the USSR, the course of school hygiene developed independently on medical faculties from 1924 to 1933 under different names: 'hygiene of education,' 'social hygiene of childhood,' etc., and from 1934 under the general name 'school hygiene' it is taught on all faculties, with separate departments of school hygiene on sanitary and pediatric faculties, and a course of associate professors on therapeutic faculties. The organizer and first professor of school hygiene in the Soviet Union is the Honored Scientist Prof. A. V. Molkov, who developed a systematic course in teaching school hygiene, prepared a teaching and scientific staff of workers in the field of school hygiene, and is directing the development of a number of scientific research problems in the field of school hygiene. Under his editorship and with his direct participation, a number of guiding collections and materials on school hygiene issues and the first Soviet textbook for pedagogical higher educational institutions on school hygiene (ed. 1934 and 1936) were published. Scientific research centers developing issues of school hygiene, in addition to university departments, are school hygiene laboratories at 4 OZDiP institutes. At scientific institutes of sanitation and hygiene in the center and locally, as well as in some sanitary-hygiene laboratories and stations, there are departments working on school hygiene.