Camp

CAMP (German), a temporary station, usually in an open field. A large number of types of camps are distinguished, differing in their structure and equipment depending on the nature of the camp population (nomadic camps, military camps, concentration camps for prisoners of war, labor camps, tourist camps, pioneer camps, etc.). According to the degree of equipment, a distinction is made between bivouac camps, seasonal camps, and more permanent ones; according to the type of living quarters—earthhouse, hut, tent, barracks, etc.; according to purpose—defensive, training, etc.—M i l i t a r y c a m p s entered wartime military practice in the most ancient times. The oldest type of military camps are bivouac tent camps, which aimed to protect troops from bad weather in field conditions. The field tent in the Red Army consists of 6 panels, 3 sectional poles, 10 ropes, and 8 pegs; it is designed for 6 people and is divided into 6 parts when carried. Each of the 6 Red Army soldiers on the march wraps the rolled-up greatcoat issued to him in the tent panel given to him, tightening its ends together with the tent panel. To the "back part" of the rolled-up greatcoat, together with the panel, the half-poles and pegs are tied with a rope end. In the assembled form, such a tent constitutes a gable shelter.—As an improvisation of bivouac camps, earthhouses, huts, and shelters made of branches, straw, straw mats, etc., are used. For subtropical and tropical regions, where protection from bad weather is sometimes of less importance than protecting troops from mosquitoes and sandflies, troops are provided with mesh tents made of a special material similar to tulle. The procedure for pitching bivouac camps is regulated by the field service regulations and depends on the size and shape of the plot allocated for the bivouac camp and the general military situation. As a general rule, "camps are located facing the enemy and must ensure rapid formation into combat order." To hinder aerial reconnaissance, modern regulations prohibit placing tents in regular quadrangles, which facilitate determining the troop numbers. A more solid structure is observed in t r a i n i n g c a m p s of peacetime. Such camps are pitched in tents or barracks. The type of tents in stationary camps differs from field ones by more convenient shapes, larger sizes, and a more capital installation that takes into account sanitary and hygienic requirements. A great variety of tent types is observed in various armies. The Red Army tent is built of dense hemp canvas fabric (semi-bleached ravenduck) and consists of 16 solid panels (4 panels for each side), cut somewhat obliquely at the top so that the erected tent takes the form of a tetrahedral pyramid covered with a cone-shaped roof. Along the lower edge of the panels, 30 rope loops are fastened for putting them on the pegs. The tent is supported by a wooden framework consisting of a) a folding pole with two iron nuts at the top and a pin on which a wooden knob is put; b) four corner poles; c) four stakes for fastening the rope ends; d) four hemp rope ends 10.5 m long; e) 30 pegs. Each side of the tent is 3.63 m, its height is 3.18 m. When setting up the tent, the turf layer of earth is first removed, a wooden or brick "nest" up to ³/₄ m high is constructed, and the lower edge of the tent is stretched over its upper edge. From the outside, the nest is covered with an earthen rampart (for better drainage of rainwater and more reliable protection from the wind) and surrounded by a drainage ditch. The floors inside the tent are made of tamped earth or, better, wood. Inside the tent, cellular plank beds or cots are installed. The tents are designed for 10 people. When placing tents, it is necessary to leave intervals between them equal to the diagonal of the tent base, but in any case not less than ¹/₂ the height of the tent. Reducing intervals to two steps in front and 4 steps in depth, which is often practiced for the sake of economy of space, is clearly unhygienic. For the sanitary and hygienic assessment of tent camps, one should keep in mind the hygienic properties of the tent fabric, the layout system of the tents, and the camp regime. The tent fabric has an air permeability coefficient equal to 12, decreasing to 3 upon wetting; at 100% relative humidity, it is able to absorb hygroscopic water up to 30%; in a wet state, the thermal conductivity of the fabric increases by approximately 3 times. The volume of air per person is 2.8 m³. For these reasons, the air in an occupied tent with lowered flaps deteriorates quickly, especially in inclement weather. According to the studies of some authors, at night with half-open flaps in an occupied tent, the amount of CO₂ can reach 1.5⁰/₀₀, and in a closed one—up to 1.8⁰/₀₀. An increased amount of CO₂ is observed even between tents when they are spaced with small intervals (up to 0.6⁰/₀₀): A significant increase in temperature is also noted, recorded even at a distance of 80–100 steps from the tents (by 1¹/₂–2°). Already at ¹/₄ km from the residential tents at night, one can feel a sharp "residential odor," indicating severe air pollution (N. A. Ivanov). From a sanitary and hygienic point of view, tents should be considered a rather unsatisfactory dwelling for inclement autumn weather. In warm, dry summer weather, their hygienic defects are significantly mitigated due to the fact that in most tents the flaps are raised and the entrances are open.—Barracks, which first appeared in England and France, have significant advantages over tent camps. The structural types, sizes of barracks, material used for their construction (wood, brick, corrugated iron, xylolite, jute, tectomin, cork mass, asphalt cardboard, pyrament, magnesite slabs, cement plates, paper pulp material, linoleum, plywood, etc.) are very diverse in various armies. Along with stationary barracks, portable types have also become widespread (see Barracks). The most common modern type of camp barracks is the company or half-company type. In the Red Army, wooden plank barracks are the most widespread. The main sanitary requirements for barracks boil down to ensuring normal air cubic capacity, proper ventilation (at least ridge ventilation), proper lighting, and floors that are easily maintained in cleanliness. Defensive camps, i.e., those possessing a corresponding system of fortifications that turned them into strongholds for military operations, were widespread among many ancient peoples, in particular the Romans. Roman camps of Caesar's time, both of a permanent type and temporary field ones, along with high defensive qualities, also possessed good sanitary arrangements: the high quality of water supply was ensured either by isolated wells or by a water supply system; planned removal of wastewater was provided, warm and cold baths, and even central heating were constructed. By virtue of these qualities, Roman camps served as a prototype for further military housing construction (see Barracks). In modern armies, camps of the defensive type are rare, predominantly in colonial countries and border areas. The choice of a place for a peacetime camp presents a considerable difficulty in modern conditions due to the fact that taking troops out into a camp has the purpose of joint training of troops of various arms. Hence the large population of the camp, the need for a large area not only for the location of living quarters, but also for tactical artillery fields and other training grounds, etc. Occupying thousands of dessiatines of good land convenient for agriculture is usually not possible for economic reasons, while swampy and inconvenient lands pose a danger to the health of the troops. Therefore, a compromise solution takes place in practice: a plot of land is allocated for the camp, providing the opportunity to locate the residential part of the camp in sufficiently healthy conditions and to use land spaces of little value from an economic point of view for all kinds of training grounds.—The general sanitary requirements for the residential area of a training camp are the same as when choosing for barracks construction (see Barracks). It is essential to have sufficiently large water bodies nearby for swimming. Water supply is of great importance for the sanitary well-being of the camp, which must be ensured either by a water pipeline from large lakes and rivers or deep boreholes. The use of subterranean waters presents a great danger because, with a high population density and a certain primitiveness of the sanitation of camp life, it is not always possible to prevent the pollution and infection of the soil with pathogenic microbes. If it is impossible to avoid the use of groundwaters, the installation of appropriate purification and disinfection plants is absolutely necessary (see Water supply). Measures aimed at preventing soil pollution are of extremely high importance, among which rational planning of the camp site, sensible construction of latrines, and the removal of excrement and dirty household water occupy the first place.

When laying out a camp, military-tactical, educational, and sanitary-hygienic considerations are followed. The direction of the camp's front is chosen depending on the direction of the prevailing winds, the general character of the terrain, its slopes, and the presence of major high-roads. The crossing of the camp's front by the latter is generally not permitted. The flanks of the camp must be at least 100 m away from high-roads. The slopes of the soil and the direction of groundwater must be utilized so that economic and bathhouse waters, sewage from latrines, and surface soil pollution in no way threaten to contaminate water supply sources, the residential area, kitchens, or dining halls. In front of the front and along the outer sides of the camp, at a distance of about 5 m from the tents or barracks, a line is marked. Tents are pitched observing the intervals indicated above. Barracks are preferably arranged in a staggered order. Between the subunits of a unit (battalions, squadrons, batteries), it is desirable to leave intervals of at least 40 m, and up to 100 m between regiments. In the residential area, Lenin tents are located. Washbasins, usually including shower compartments, are installed behind the last row of tents. The rear camp road is laid out, behind which are located kitchens (see) and dining halls, food warehouses, ice houses, and other auxiliary facilities associated with troop nutrition. Further to the rear, at a distance of no closer than 100 m, are the wagon train and stables, behind which latrines are arranged. Sanitary and veterinary institutions (see Infirmary, Hospital) are located separately outside the camp layout or within the camp layout, but isolated from living quarters. Locations for bathhouses and laundries are chosen behind or to the side of the camp, depending on water supply conditions and the convenience of removing wastewater. For cultural and educational institutions, such as a club and theater, and sports grounds, a place is allocated depending on the general character of the site. The significance of military camps in the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army goes beyond purely educational purposes and aims, along with training troops for life and activity in full wartime conditions, to strengthen their health by utilizing natural means (sun, air, water) for this purpose. By virtue of this, under general medical supervision, sun and air baths, swimming in rivers and lakes, showers, and the like are widely used. Psycho-physiological observations in the troops note as a general rule the strengthening of the Red Army soldier's organism during the period of the camp assembly despite a heavy labor load. Pioneer camps are established in summer for young pioneers of urban detachments with health-improving and socially educational purposes. For a pioneer camp, a dry, healthy place is chosen, if possible near a river, lake, or on the seashore. Dachas, schools, or other buildings are adapted for the pioneers to live in. In the southern zone of the USSR, tents are sometimes used, and in such cases, a building must necessarily be in reserve where all pioneers can be moved in the event of a sharp deterioration in the weather. Tent camps are currently being abandoned because unhygienic conditions (stuffiness, dampness, crampedness) are created in tents. The locality must be free of malaria and have good drinking water. If a pioneer camp is organized on a collective farm, it is necessary to preliminarily establish whether there are any infectious diseases among the children (scarlet fever, diphtheria, measles, etc.). If an epidemic is present, the camp is not deployed. For a pioneer camp, the following premises are minimally required: a) a hall for meetings and collective work, accommodating all pioneers of the camp; this same room can serve as a dining hall on inclement days; b) dormitories, at least 3.0 m² per person; c) a kitchen with a pantry; d) a cellar if possible; e) toilets in buildings or outdoor, separate for boys and girls, of a closed type, with satisfactory ventilation from the pit. For daytime work and for eating in good weather, tables are set up in the open air. Often the kitchen is also set up under a canopy outside the house. Washbasins and showers are also located in the open air (if there is no water for swimming). Completely healthy children who do not need any medical measures are sent to the pioneer camp; before departure, pioneers undergo a medical examination to single out sick and weak children for whom a stay in the camp might prove harmful. Most pioneer camps are "base" camps, i.e., for several detachments of a base for 100-150 people; however, given appropriate conditions, an increase in the pioneer camp is also possible. Life in a pioneer camp is organized on a military model with the observance of a strict regime of work, games, rest, and sleep. The working day is spent on self-service (all work is done by the children; sometimes even the pioneers cook their own food), on educational work (fireside chats, group circle activities on socio-political issues), on manual labor in forms accessible to the given age, on games (mostly of a semi-military nature), and on excursions. The main socio-political work of the pioneer camp is work with the local population, which turns into conversations with adults and especially with the children of the collective farm, as well as in the form of practical activities of the pioneers useful to the collective farm (propaganda and practical demonstration of new forms of agriculture or gardening, participation in work in the field, in the kitchen garden, in the garden, etc.). For the possibility of such practical activity, camps are organized exclusively in collective farms or near them. This constitutes the main significance of the pioneer camp as a place where the children's collective freely carries out socially useful work, the scale of which is sometimes very large with significant political and economic value for the collective farm. The second useful side of the camp is the sanitary-hygienic, cultural, and health-improving work carried out inside the camp itself: sanitary-educational talks, the practical implementation of hygienic rules (frequent washing, tooth brushing, hair and nail care, and the systematic hardening of the organism using light, air, and water). Pioneers in the camp spend almost around the clock in the open air (in good weather they sometimes even sleep in the open air), which, given normal work and sufficient nutrition, games, and physical culture exercises, produces a significant health-improving effect. The camp must be under sanitary supervision; upon its organization, a sanitary doctor or a doctor for the health protection of children and adolescents must give an opinion on the locality and buildings for the camp and periodically visit the camp throughout the entire season. In large camps, a permanent doctor must be present. Physical culture work is conducted by one of the leaders or (in large camps) a special instructor. For children who are physically weakened, sanatorium pioneer camps are organized by health authorities or Red Cross organizations (see Sanatorium camp).

S. Malov.