Medical Literature

Medical Literature. Contents: I. Scientific medical literature....... 54 7 II. List of medical journals (1792-1938)...... 562 III. Popular medical literature..... 576 (herbals), remedy books (healing books, medical manuals), pharmacopoeias (pharmacies). Handwritten remedy books are characterized by their broad and varied content; they are not limited to a list of diseases with descriptions of medicines for them, but often address almost all cases of human life, indicating means that could help in one difficulty or another or prevent it. In purely medical terms, remedy books can be called medical encyclopedias of their era, since in addition to diseases and medicines, remedy books of the 17th and 18th centuries also discuss the pathogenesis of diseases, methods of recognizing them, etc. The most typical and perfect form of such a household-remedy encyclopedia is represented by the 'vertograds' that multiplied at the end of the 17th century. Collections of the same character are found in most monuments of contemporary European medical literature. The most famous of such collections is 'The Cool Vertograd', translated into Russian in 1672; it became a favorite book for Russian physicians of the 17th century and has survived to our time in many copies. It was customary to consider our remedy books as products of folk creativity, however Zmeev studied in detail 186 Russian medical manuscripts and compared them with European remedy books, which gave him grounds to speak out against such an assumption. 'If this is so, then only partially. Their content is undoubtedly all borrowed.' 'All our medical manuscripts are translations from foreign languages. - A small number of manuscripts composed by Russians represent only borrowings from foreign models or from earlier lists' (Zmeev). The old assertion of Richter, who considered that 'all such manuscripts are household remedy books', has been rejected by later researchers (Zmeev, Laktin, Novombergsky). 'These herbals were books of a completely scientific nature; they existed in all languages' (Zmeev). 'The mass of medical books was intended for teaching, not for self-treatment... Only in the 18th century did textbooks begin to lose their specifically school character and came into general use in the form of numerous revisions and abridgments' (Novombergsky). Handwritten remedy books remained until the appearance of printed books in civil script in the 18th century, although their copying (to satisfy collector enthusiasts) did not cease until the 19th century.- Translations of works by classical writers-Aristotle, Galen, Hippocrates-played a significantly smaller role in Russian handwritten medical literature than collections. The secular writing of that time (including medical) lagged far behind the spiritual. The demand for medical literature was small. Therefore, the introduction of printing did not affect Russian medical literature. Medical books were not printed at all in the Slavic language. Thus, the detailed lists and descriptions of Slavic printed books from 1494 to 1730, compiled by Karataev, do not name a single medical book. Russian medical literature of the 18th century. A new period began with the introduction of civil script (1708). The first Russian printed medical materials appeared, which include the first descriptions ('inquiries, announcements') of the mineral waters of Marcial Olonets (1718-1719). By order of Peter, medical books were translated into Russian and later, under his successors, printed: 'Aphorisms' I. Scientific medical literature: Medical literature in Russia before the appearance of printing. The beginning of Russian medical writing dates back to the 11th century. Researchers (Zmeev) believe that in the Kievan and Vladimir times of Rus, remedy books borrowed from Bulgarian, Serbian, Greek, and Arabic manuscripts, which have not survived to our time, could have existed. The earliest surviving monument of Russian medical literature is a hygienic article in the 'Sviatoslav Izbornik' (1073), where various medical-hygienic information is presented by month. (Later, until the 15th century, this information was copied into calendars.) Then follows a long period of time, from the 11th to the 16th century, from which no medical manuscripts have reached us, although in later monuments of medical antiquity there are indisputable indications that such manuscripts existed at that time. To this period belongs the lost remedy book of the Stroganov medicines, translated into the Slavic language in the 15th century by the physician Kaibyshev.- The 16th century enriched Russian medical literature with several translated remedy books ('Herbal' of 1534, 'Herbal' of the voivode Buturlin of 1588). Translations were made from German and Polish languages. Russian remedy books of the 16th century, as translations, were very late compared to the originals. Due to such delays in translations, the first Russian remedy books reflected the contemporary level of medical knowledge in the West to a small extent; for example, they contain no references to the discoveries of Vesalius and Harvey, which constituted an era in the history of medicine. 'Anatomy' by Vesalius, it is true, was translated into Russian later (1650), but this translation was made for the tsar and existed in one copy, the content of which was apparently unknown to the compilers and translators of remedy books. In general, at that time physicians were only at the royal court, and medical knowledge did not go beyond the palace fence. The most magnificent flourishing of Russian handwritten medical literature belongs to the 17th century. By this time, relations with the West revived, trade and political connections arose. Continuous military actions and reforms of that time led to the organization of military-field medicine and attempts at medical education. The most popular guides in the training of Russian physicians were Polish ones: 'Medical Book' (Krakow, 1517), 'Herbal' of Spichinsky (Krakow, 1542), 'Problematas' (Krakow, 1567), 'Cool Vertograd' (1523). the Apothecary Order created the first medical library by purchasing books abroad and within the country, copying and translating books. Translations of remedy books from foreign languages were carried out by spiritual and office translators, and copying by all sorts of scribes and medical students. At the Apothecary Order, special translators were employed, obliged to translate books 'according to which books Russian people can become perfect physicians and apothecaries'. From this time, numerous (up to 200) medical manuscripts have survived. The main mass consists of herbals (herb books), vertograds, Hippocrates (1742), 'Anatomy of the Human Body' by Bidloo, 'Field and Domestic Pharmacy'. In the middle of the 18th century, anatomy textbooks by Preysler (1749) and Heister (1757) were translated into Russian. In the second half of the 18th century, about a hundred books on various branches of medicine were printed in our country. Many publications were devoted to vaccination, which began to be carried out in Russia at the end of the 18th century. A number of books, both translated and original, were devoted to the plague, the epidemic of which in 1771-72 took many victims in Moscow and other cities. In the last quarter of the 18th century, authors appeared who published original Russian medical books. These include Bacharek, P. Bogdanovich, I. Veltsin, S. Zabelin, I. Kashinsky, D. Samoylovich and others. A number of authors (I. Bolotin, M. Verevkin, A. Sevastyanov, V. Severgin) provided materials on the balneography of Russia. The most prominent figure in Russian medical literature of this time was undoubtedly N. M. Maksimovich-Ambodik, who printed a number of large books: 'Medical-Surgical Dictionary' (1780), 'Anatomical-Physiological Dictionary' (1783), 'The Art of Midwifery' in 6 parts (1784-86), 'Medical Materia Medica' in 4 parts (1784-94), 'Physiology' (1787). The appearance of the first Russian medical journal also dates to this time. In 1763 it was decided to publish 'Notes of Russian Doctors', but this was not implemented. In 1792, 'St. Petersburg Medical Reports' appeared. In 1794, F. Barsuk-Moiseev, translator of many medical books into Russian, defended his dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Medicine at Moscow University. Medical literature in Russia in Latin and foreign languages. In the first half of the 18th century, many foreigners invited to work in Russia, physicians and scientists, published their works abroad. Later their books and collections of articles in Latin and German began to be printed in Russia and began a century-long period when medical books and dissertations were printed in Russia in the Latin language. Medical dissertations of the universities existing in the first half of the 18th century in Moscow, Kharkov, Kazan, Kiev, Dorpat, Abo, Vilna and Warsaw and the Medico-Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg were printed in Latin until the end of the fifties. At the end of this period, cases of parallel printing of dissertations in Latin and Russian languages were not uncommon (for example, the dissertations of Botkin and Zakharyin). From 1860-62, dissertations began to be printed in Russian. At Dorpat University from the same time, dissertations began to be printed in German (see Dissertation). The printing of monographic works in Latin and German (less often in French) continued until 1850-60. For example, the well-known 'History of Medicine in Russia' by V. Richter was published in Moscow first in German (1813-17) and only later its Russian translation appeared (1814-20). Even later, Pirogov printed his works in Latin and German, some of which were translated into Russian.

There were cases of printing in Moscow translations of medical books from German into Latin. In Vilnius and Warsaw, medical books were printed in the Polish language. Translated Russian medical literature of the 19th century. In the 19th century, Russian medical literature was enriched with numerous translated guides and books. In the first half of the 19th century, translated medical literature constituted no less than three-quarters of the medical books published in the Russian language at that time. 'No country is as rich in translations from foreign languages' (Zmeev). According to the lists compiled by Zmeev, we have obtained the following figures, showing the growth in the number of medical works translated into Russian during the second half of the 18th century and the first 85 years of the 19th century. Publication of translated medical works in Russian (number of titles): 1741-1750 - 2, 1751-1760 - 2, 1761-1770 - 8, 1771-1780 - 15, 1781-1790 - 48, 1791-1800 - 76, 1801-1810 - 74, 1811-1820 - 111, 1821-1830 - 69, 1831-1840 - 107, 1841-1850 - 106, 1851-1860 - 195, 1861-1870 - 303, 1871-1880 - 315, 1881-1886 - 234. Although these figures cannot claim absolute accuracy, they correctly reflect the main trends and dynamics of the development of medical literature in Russia and the growing demand for books on various issues. The figures clearly indicate two peaks in the curve of the number of publications: the first in 1831-40 and the second, more significant, in 1851-60 and especially in 1861-70 (Both of these epochs are also characterized by a rapid growth of original Russian medical literature). A high percentage of translated literature was maintained throughout the 19th century. Thus, in 1894, Gruzenberg, by examining the main medical literature available on the market (without dissertations and society protocols), distributed this literature by individual branches (Table 1). Table 1. Number of translated works Percentage of translated works Branches of medicine all works Physiology .... Diagnosis, clinical Orthopedics, massage Medical chemistry, physics, botany . . Internal diseases . . Mental and nervous diseases, electro- Anatomy and histology Obstetrics and gynecology Surgery, diseases of teeth and genito- urinary organs . . . Pathological anatomy, general pathology . . Throat, ear Mental diseases, syphilis, skin Pharmacology . . . Forensic medicine Bacteriology . . . Military medicine. Eye diseases. . Medical geography, history, statistics . . . Total . . . 1,705 85 The same percentage of translated editions was obtained by Gruzenberg when calculating only books that went on sale in 1893. The translators were mainly doctors; some translators were prominent scientists of their time; thus, many translations belong to M. Mudrov, D. Vellansky, F. Barsuk-Moiseev, V. Dzyunkovsky, G. A. Zakharyin, A. N. Nikitin, Ya. A. Chistovich, V. A. Manasein and others. Both individual works by prominent European physicians (Hufeland, Billroth, Malgaigne, Nélaton, Ziemssen, Niemeyer, Virchow, Pettenkofer, etc.) and multi-volume collective guides (Ziemssen, Pietta and Billroth, etc.) were translated. Many translated medical books were very popular and went through several Russian editions. For example, Hufeland's 'Guide to Practical Medicine' was published in five Russian editions (1839-63), his 'The Art of Prolonging Human Life' in four Russian editions (1852-1856), Zobernheim's 'Special Pharmacology' in four Russian editions (1841-65), Schreber's 'Domestic Medical Gymnastics' in seven Russian editions (1856-85), Pettenkofer's 'Cholera' in three Russian editions in one year 1885. The popular book 'The Structure, Life, and Organization of the Human Body' by Boeck went through 12 Russian editions (1870-82).

* In the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century, the majority of medical books, both translated and original, were published by government institutions (Academy of Sciences, Medico-Surgical Academy, universities, Military Medical Department, Medical Collegium, Medical Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, etc.). Many translated books were published as supplements to the Military Medical Journal. Later, the main body of translated medical literature was published by private publishing houses. From a small book trade in St. Petersburg grew the first and subsequently most significant medical publishing house of pre-revolutionary Russia—the publishing house of K. Ricker, founded in 1861 and initially printing medical literature only in the German language. Ricker's firm developed rapidly and by the beginning of the 20th century represented a very large enterprise. The first publications of Ricker were almost all translations, which on the one hand was explained by the foreign origin of the owner, and on the other—the lack of author's convention and the starvation pay of translators, which made the publication of translations extremely profitable. Later Ricker began to publish many original Russian books, however the main character of the publishing house—the translation of foreign and moreover predominantly German literature—was preserved until the liquidation of the publishing house in 1918. Given the wide distribution of Ricker's publications, this circumstance undoubtedly played a significant role in the formation of the German orientation of Russian medicine. During its existence, Ricker published over 500 titles of medical books, among which were such major works as: Hager G. "Guide to Pharmaceutical and Medico-Surgical Practice" (five volumes, 1890-95), Pentzold F. and Stintzing R. "Guide to Private Pathology and Therapy of Internal Diseases" (6 volumes, 1896-97), Rauber A. "Guide to Human Anatomy" (5 volumes, 1905-11), Ziemssen G. "Guide to General Therapy" (11 parts, 1881-87) and many others. At Ricker's, many Russian guides and manuals were also first published, which were reprinted even during the Soviet period, such as Bulatov P. and Freiberg N. "Brief Textbook on Hygiene", Verigo B. "Fundamentals of Human Physiology and Higher Animals" (1905-10), Kravkov N. "Fundamentals of Pharmacology", Mechnikov I. "Lectures on the Comparative Pathology of Inflammation" (1892) and many others. In addition to Ricker's publishing house, the publishing house "Practical Medicine", founded in St. Petersburg in 1884 by V. Ettinger, did very large publishing work. This publishing house, with a small break, existed until 1930. Among small publishing houses, in Moscow should be mentioned the publishing houses of Kartsev, Karbasnikov and Bashmakov; in Kharkov—of Dr. Khavkin; in Kyiv—"Sotrudnik" and in Saratov—Galler's. Original Russian medical literature of the 19th century. The vastness of the book material published during this period does not allow for a detailed characterization of all original Russian medical literature of the 19th century here. We will limit ourselves here to a chronological review of only the most major works. The first decade of the 19th century marks the beginning of the literary activity of J. Willier; 1805-15 were the period of flourishing literary activity of the very prolific Moscow author E. Mukhin, who published many books on surgery, forensic medicine, anatomy and other issues. In 1802, compiled by P. Zagosky, the guide "Abbreviated Anatomy" was published, which went through 5 editions (St. Petersburg, 1802-30). By O. Kamenetsky and Y. Sapolovich on the order of the Medical Collegiate was compiled "Brief Instruction on the Treatment of Diseases by Simple Means", printed in 1803; subsequently, until 1864, it went through more than ten Russian editions and was translated into Georgian and Armenian languages. In the second decade of the 19th century appeared the most famous philosophical-medical works of the bright representative of Schelling's philosophy L. Vellansky ("Biological Research of Nature", 1812, etc.). K. Uden printed 7 parts of "Academic Readings on Chronic Diseases" (St. Petersburg, 1816-22). At the same time I. Bush published "Guide to the Teaching of Surgery" which went through five editions (1807). In 1820, V. Malakhov printed an original "emblematic drawing" with an explanation to it—"The River of Diseases Flowing in Their Natural Course from the Abyss of Life's Errors Through the Fields Depicting the Vital Forces of Man" (St. Petersburg, 1820). In the first 20 years of the 19th century, both in the capitals and in the provinces (Kharkov, Kazan), many books were printed devoted to the description of mineral springs in various parts of Russia (Reman, Pfeler, Tsez, Reys and others). In the twenties, the literary activity of the surgeon I. Buyalsky began; the most significant were his "Anatomical-Surgical Tables" (St. Petersburg, 1828), which received good reviews in the foreign press and were translated into German. At the same time A. Nelyubin began to print his original and translated books; in 1825 appeared compiled by him "Complete Historical, Medico-Topographical, Physico-Chemical and Medical Description of the Caucasian Mineral Waters". The Moscow professor N. Lebedev published "Brief History of Medicine" (Moscow, 1827). At the same time on the field of original literary creativity appeared A. Nikitin, who in 1825 published the first edition of his book "On the Spring Treatment of Diseases" (3 editions, St. Petersburg, 1825-52); later he published "Medical Dictionary" (St. Petersburg, 1835), the first original work in the Russian language on professional hygiene "Diseases of Workers with Indication of Preventive Measures", which went through 3 editions (St. Petersburg, 1847-52), and a number of other books. The second cholera pandemic of 1826-37 affected many areas of Russia and this led to the appearance in 1828-32 of many (up to three dozen) both translated and original books devoted to epidemiology, statistics and therapy of cholera. The next decade was marked by the plague epidemic in the Caucasus and Odessa, which served as the reason for the appearance of books devoted to this disease. The discovery in the first quarter of the 19th century of new universities with medical faculties increased the need for textbooks, and this soon found reflection in medical literature. Therefore, the period 1830-50 is noted as the time of appearance of many major original textbooks and guides: "Brief Exposition of Forensic Medicine" by S. Gromov (2 editions, St. Petersburg, 1832 and 1838, translated into Polish), "Review of Desmurgy" by N. Yellinsky, in 2 parts (Kharkov, 1832), "Attempt at a System of Practical Medicine" by Pr. Charukovsky, in 4 parts (St. Petersburg, 1833-40), "Mental Diseases, Set Out in Accordance with the Principles of Modern Psychiatry" by P. Butkovsky, in 2 parts (2 editions, St. Petersburg, 1834 and 1844), "Attempt at Military Medical Police" by R. Chetyrkin (St. Petersburg, 1834), "Military Campaign Medicine" by A. Charukovsky, in 5 parts (St. Petersburg, 1836-37), "General Therapy" by U. Dyakovsky (Moscow, 1836), "Physiology" by A. Filomafitsky, in 2 parts (Moscow, 1836-1842), "Doctrine of Chest Diseases" by Gr. Sokolsky (Moscow, 1838), "Guide to Operative Surgery" by Chr. Solomon, in 2 parts (St. Petersburg, 1840), "Outline of Private Pathology and Therapy" by P. Butkovsky, in 2 parts (Kharkov, 1841), "Operative Surgery" by I. Rklitsky (3 editions, St. Petersburg, 1841-59), "Course of Obstetrics and Women's Diseases" by G. Korablyov, in 3 parts (Moscow, 1841-43), "General Anatomy" by I. Bystrov (Moscow, 1842), a number of books by K. Lebedev: "Guide to General Therapy" (Moscow, 1841), "General Pharmacology" (Moscow, 1842), "Practical Pharmacology" (Moscow, 1843), "Prescription Writing" (Moscow, 1843), "General Surgery" by T. Kudryavtsev (Moscow, 1843), "Brief General Anatomy of the Human Body" (St. Petersburg, 1844).-In 1832 printed his first book—dissertation N. I. Pirogov "Num vinctura aortae abdominalis in aneurismate inguinali adhibitu facile ac tutum sit remedium?" (Dorpat, 1832), with which began his brilliant literary activity, continuing almost 50 years until his death in 1881. From the literary heritage of Pirogov we will note only the most famous books and atlases: 1) "Anatomia chirurgica truncorum arteriarum atque fasciarum fibrosarum", atlas on large sheets with text in Latin, later Russian languages, 5 editions during the author's lifetime (1837-38), 2) "Complete Course of Applied Anatomy of the Human Body", 12 booklets with atlas (St. Petersburg, 1843-44), 3) "Anatomia topographica sectionibus per corpus humanum congelatum triplici directione ductis", 4 parts, atlas, 224 sheets (St. Petersburg, 1851-54), 4) "Foundations of General Field Surgery" (in German language—Leipzig, 1864, in Russian language—Dresden, 1865-66). The atlases mentioned here are technically well-executed works, characterizing the enormous work of the author and justly winning world fame. The mid-19th century, rich in political, economic and social changes in the life of Russia and Europe (the revolutionary wave of 1848, the Crimean War, the abolition of serfdom, the introduction of zemstvo and urban institutions and the growth of industrial capital in Russia), is marked by a number of phenomena in the cultural life of Russia. Such facts as the appearance and development of zemstvo medicine, the development of Russian science in the socio-political atmosphere of the sixties, the new university statute of 1863, soon found reflection in that quantitative and qualitative upsurge of Russian medical literature, which is noted from the beginning of the sixties.

Among the major phenomena of our medical literature during the decade 1861-70, it is necessary to first note the appearance of the main works of I. M. Sechenov 'Reflexes of the Brain' (two editions, St. Petersburg, 1863-66), 'Physiology of the Nervous System' (St. Petersburg, 1866). A. Krassovsky published his books 'Course of Practical Obstetrics' (St. Petersburg, 1865) and 'On Ovariotomy' (St. Petersburg, 1868). S. P. Botkin began printing his 'Course of Clinical Internal Medicine' in 3 parts (St. Petersburg, 1867-75) and collections of works by his students 'Archive of Clinical Internal Medicine' in 10 volumes (St. Petersburg, 1869-86). The next decade, 1871-1880, was marked by the appearance of major works on pathology and hygiene and eye diseases. In the first field during this time, books by M. Rudnev 'Guide to General Pathology' (St. Petersburg, 1873) and 'Notes on Pathological Anatomy and Histology' (three editions, St. Petersburg, 1877-82) were printed, as well as the first edition of the famous guide by V. Pashutin 'Lectures on General Pathology' in 2 parts (Kazan, 1878-81). In the field of hygiene, it is necessary to note the appearance of the first editions of classic guides by F. Erismann (1872-77). On ophthalmology, in 1871-1873, the main books by M. Voynov appeared, and somewhat later the guide by A. Khodin 'Practical Ophthalmology' (three editions, 1879-87). For the years 1881-90, one can also note the appearance of guides on ophthalmology by E. Adamyuk 'Practical Guide to the Study of Eye Diseases' in 2 parts (Kazan, 1881-1885) and by A. Kryukov 'Course of Eye Diseases' (St. Petersburg, 1881, subsequently many reprinted editions to our time). From 1881, the literary activity of V. M. Bekhterev began, which lasted more than 40 years. This decade is characterized by the appearance of numerous works on hygiene and sanitation. The main works of A. P. Dobroslavin 'Hygiene' in 2 parts (St. Petersburg, 1882-89) and 'Course of Military Hygiene' in 2 volumes (St. Petersburg, 1885-87) were printed. E. Dementiev, A. Pogozhev and F. Erismann printed 17 issues of their famous 'Sanitary Studies of Factory Establishments' (1881-88). The extensive publishing activities of the Pirogov Society began (Proceedings of congresses from 1885, journal from 1895). The zemstvo medical organization began an extensive period of publishing its medical literature (reviews, chronicles, proceedings of congresses, reports), preserving on its pages numerous data on sanitation and pathology of the peasant population. By the last decade of the 19th century, as a reflection of the growth of the zemstvo medical organization, a number of books appeared, of which the collective work by E. Osipov, I. Popov and P. Kurkin 'Russian Zemstvo Medicine. Review of the development of zemstvo medicine in Russia in general and separately in the Moscow province with a brief statistical sketch of the country and its sanitary condition' (Moscow, 1899), edited by D. N. Zhbankov, should be placed first, as well as 7 issues of the 'Zemstvo-Medical Collection' (Moscow, 1890-99). In the field of scientific medical literature at the end of the 19th century, many guides that went through multiple editions appeared: V. Podyvotsky's 'Fundamentals of General Pathology', D. Zernov's 'Guide to Descriptive Anatomy of Man', N. Filatov's 'Semiotics and Diagnosis of Childhood Diseases', 'Brief Textbook of Childhood Diseases', 'Lectures on Acute Infectious Diseases in Children' and others. Medical books of the early 20th century in most cases served as textbooks and guides for the main medical personnel of our time, therefore they are remembered by many. From the literature of the first 14 years of the 20th century, we note the capital edition 'Russian Surgery' in 35 issues, published under the editorship of P. Dyakonov, L. Levshin, V. Razumovsky and M. Subbotin (St. Petersburg, 1902-16). The beginning of the world war was marked by the appearance in the publication 'Practical Medicine' of a series of original individual and collective guides: P. Tikhov's 'Private Surgery', in 3 volumes, P. Mezernitsky's 'Physiotherapy', in 3 volumes, A. Lozinsky's 'Balneology for the Practicing Physician', in 3 parts and many others. Medical literature after the revolution. The revolution found the book business in a state of decline. The rising cost of publishing and the outflow of capital from it, which was directed to more profitable military enterprises, led to the fact that by 1916 there was already a shortage of guides for higher education, and in 1917 there was a direct famine in this regard. By the end of 1918, there was no scientific medical literature on the book market. By this time, private publishing houses had completely ceased their activities, and as for the Soviet apparatus, in the conditions of civil war and capitalist intervention, it was impossible to think about organizing a systematic medical publishing house. It is very difficult to establish with certainty where and when the revival of our medical literature began. This revival is usually identified with the beginning of the appearance in 1918 in Kharkov of the journal 'Medical Affairs'. Almost simultaneously with the release of this journal, the publishing commission of the professional union of doctors of Kharkov province began to publish small medical monographs. This laid the foundation for the publishing house 'Scientific Thought'. In 1918, the student medical society in Rostov-on-Don published several textbooks, for example, Pozharsky I. 'Course of Pathological Anatomy', Maximovich S. 'Brief Textbook of Physiological Chemistry', Nikolsky P. 'Skin Diseases', Ignatovsky A. 'Latent and Initial Tuberculosis of the Lungs' and others. Books were also published in Siberia, where even such 'academic publications' as 'Izvestiya of Tomsk University' (Vol. LXVIII, Tomsk, 1918) continued to be printed, and the proceedings of medical congresses were published. It is even more difficult to obtain information about the medical literature of the RSFSR for 1918, since the 'Book Chronicle' was not published in the second half of 1917 and throughout 1918. Nevertheless, individual books appeared in early 1919, for example, Darkshevich L. 'Course of Nervous Diseases' (in Kazan), published by Bashmakovs, Binstok V. 'Instructions for Disinfectors' (in Moscow), published by the Scientific and Methodological Department of Narkompros, Kashchenko V. 'Nervousness and Defectiveness' (in Moscow) and others. However, the need for textbooks for higher education was felt very soon, and the question of creating appropriate literature came to the fore. In January 1919, the publishing department of Narkomzdrav was organized (in 1928 renamed Gosmedizdat). The task of this institution was to provide the republic with scientific, educational, reference and popular medical literature. In 1922, within Gosizdat, a scientific department was created, within which a medical section was formed. Later, in 1923, the publishing house of Moszdravotdel was organized, in 1924 the publishing house for the protection of motherhood and infancy, and subsequently other state organizations developed more or less medical publishing activities, for example, 'Questions of Labor', 'Scientific-Chemical Publishing', 'Kubu' etc. in Moscow, 'Priboy', 'Kubuch' etc. in Leningrad, Gosizdat of the Ukrainian SSR in Kharkov, 'Krasnaya Kniga' in Orel, 'Beltrpechat' in Minsk and others. Among the numerous private medical publishing houses that began or continued their activities after the revolution (for example, 'Modern Problems', Sabashnikovs M. and S., Frenkel L. D., Soykin P. 'Life and Knowledge' etc. in Moscow, 'Meditsina', 'Academic Publishing', 'Grzhebin 3.' etc. in Leningrad, 'Kosmos' in Kharkov and others), only the publishing house 'Practical Medicine' really performed significant and noticeable work, which resumed its activities in 1921. The fragmentation of medical publishing among numerous separate organizations, the control of which was carried out with great difficulty and as a result of which many unnecessary and sometimes duplicate publications appeared in the country, prompted the government in 1928, along with other publishers, to standardize medical publishing and concentrate it in a few places. Thanks to this, by 1929, the publication of medical books, with the exception of a small number of small student and academic publications in the RSFSR, was concentrated in the hands of Gosizdat and Gosmedizdat; among private publishers, only the publishing house 'Practical Medicine' showed some activity. In 1930, a reorganization of publishing was carried out and in the system of the newly formed Ogiz, in January 1931, the State Publishing House of Medical Literature - Medgiz began its activities, absorbing the medical section of Giz and Gosmedizdat. From 1934, Medgiz significantly expanded the publication of biological literature and was renamed Biomedgiz. The growth of the network of medical higher educational institutions, the sharp increase in medical personnel, the development of the network of healthcare institutions, the enormous growth of scientific research work in numerous newly opened institutes - all this naturally could not but have the most positive effect on the growth of medical publications in the country. The growth of their output is clearly visible from Table 2. State Publishing House of the RSFSR. The medical section of the scientific department of Gosizdat began its work in 1923 with an almost absolute absence of textbooks. Therefore first Table 2. Medical literature from 1910 to 1929 years.* Years 1920. 1921. 1922. 1923. 1924. 1925. 1926. 1927. 1928. 1929.

Titles of Author's Sheets (in millions) 2 732 1 743 1 816 1 854 3 873 4 166 5 485 4 112 6.2 0.22 0.6 2.52 6.92 4.8 6.1 14.0 15.6 26.975 21.8 Further figures see below * The table (as well as all subsequent ones) is compiled on the basis of data from the 'Book Chronicle', since the materials of individual publishing houses, as well as the committee for press affairs, characterize the activity of the entire publishing house, not specifically highlighting scientific literature. 1910 was chosen as the year of greatest capitalist stabilization in prerevolutionary Russia, and the figures given in the 1910 column refer to the entire tsarist Russia, while the remaining data refer only to the RSFSR. In 1929, work began on the publication of textbooks for the first courses, and only around 1929 was a basic assortment of textbooks for all courses created. Along with the publication of textbooks, GIZ also developed significant activities for serving practical doctors and scientific workers. For this purpose, a number of major guides and series were created. Among the first, the experience of Gosizdat in creating collective guides by Soviet scientists deserves special attention. From these guides, it is necessary to note: 'Private Pathology and Therapy' (4 volumes), edited by G. Lang and D. Pletnev (M.-L., 1926-31), 'Guide to Practical Surgery', edited by S. Girgolav, A. Martynov and S. Fedorov, M.-L., 1929 (unfinished), and others. From the series created by Gosizdat, the following played a significant role: 'Modern Problems of Natural Science', 'Modern Problems of Medicine', 'Classics of Natural Science', 'Darwin Library', 'Library of the Practicing Physician', etc. As it increasingly specialized in the publication of basic scientific and educational books, Gosizdat almost completely abandoned the publication of popular literature of a medical nature, the publication of which passed to Gosmedizdat, and later to Biomedgiz. Another feature of Gosizdat's work was the predominant publication of original, rather than translated works. Thus, in 1925, translated literature accounted for 26%, in 1926 - 25%, and in 1927 - only 17% of all medical production of GIZ. Table 3. Medical Literature of Gosizdat for 1920-1929. Years Titles of Author's Sheets of Prints (in thousands) 1920........ 1 1921 ........ 4 656 3 116 2 951 4 106 5 108 86 66 1773 1333 - 7 363 6 017 The State Medical Publishing House (GMI) was reorganized in 1928 as a specialized publishing house through the merger of the publishing house of the People's Commissariat of Health and the publishing house of the Department for the Protection of Motherhood and Infancy. If Gosizdat concentrated its work on the scientific and educational book, then GMI at its time undoubtedly took a leading position in the field of publishing sanitary-educational literature. In relation to scientific books, the publications of GMI were characterized by a predominant orientation toward serving practical workers, for whom a large number of more or less specialized monographs, reference books, official and semi-official instructional materials, etc., were published. Table 4. Scientific Publications of Gosmedizdat and the publishing house of the NKZdr. Years Titles of Author's Sheets of Prints (in thousands) 1920 ...... г г i 3 260 4 941 At the end of 1930, GMI was merged into the newly organized Medgiz. State publishing house of bio. and med. literature - Biomedgiz. Biomedgiz was organized in 1931 (initial name Medgiz) as part of the State Book and Journal Union (OGIZ) for the publication of works on all branches of medicine and general biology, on applied biology related to medicine, on theoretical disciplines serving as the basis for medical and auxiliary sciences (sanitary engineering, etc.), as well as for publishing plans, norms, instructions, orders, etc. on issues of public health coming from the People's Commissariat of Health and other relevant government and public organizations. Thus, Biomedgiz is the only specialized publishing house publishing all medical and general biological literature of the RSFSR. During its existence, Biomedgiz has mainly published a set of textbooks for higher and secondary medical schools, a huge number of monographs and sanitary-educational literature, and in addition publishes journals on all medical specialties. At present, in terms of the number of titles published annually, Biomedgiz undoubtedly occupies one of the first, if not the first, places among world medical publishers. Biomedgiz is also undertaking the publication of a number of major multi-volume guides on all branches of medicine and biology. For example, the following have been published: the first volume of the anatomy guide, edited by Prof. Vorobyov, a guide to infectious diseases, edited by Zlatogorov and Pletnev, a guide to practical surgery, edited by Girgolav, Martynov and Fedorov, a guide to internal diseases, edited by Konchalovsky, Lang and Strazhesko, a guide to neurology, edited by Krol, Margulis and Propper, a guide to tbc, edited by Holzman and Einis, a guide to zoology, edited by Dogel, Zenekevich, Levin and Matveev, and many others. The publication of series of classics of bio-Й59 logy is resumed, a scientifically popular biological series is created. The output of scientific literature by Biomedgiz by years is expressed in the following figures, which in ochqbhom, since Biomedgiz is a monopoly publisher, reflect all medical production of the RSFSR. Table Я. Release of medical literature by Biomedgiz. Years Titles of Author's Sheets of Prints (in thousands) 39i4 1 36 500 193;!....... 2 876 I Ы 60» 1933 ... ... 3 L00 20 000 3 039 I 25 ^г<00 3 487 ! 33 40) i Publishing House of the Moscow Health Department. The Publishing House of the Moscow Health Department began work in 1923. Initially, it served only local needs, but gradually expanded its activities, which reached its maximum development by 1927. Among the most valuable publications, the following should be mentioned: Shvaytsar S. 'Fight against tbc and dispensary' (M., 1924), Fisher B. 'Vitalism and pathology' (M., 1926), Lesgaft P. 'Guide to human anatomy' (M., 1927); Series: 'Improvement of labor and revolution of everyday life' and 'Labor and health of workers' and others. The output of the publishing house (scientific literature) by years: Table 6. Scientific literature of the publishing house of the Moscow Health Department. Years Titles of Author's Sheets of Prints (in thousands) 22 ! 33 4S 1 154 i 1925 ........ 53 1 147 1 1926 ........ ,,127 308 256 527 ! 1828 ........ 228 ! U93 ! 1929 ........ 1 I 81 ! 178 [ In 1930, the publishing house of the Moscow Health Department ceased its activities. Publishing House of the Department for the Protection of Motherhood and Infancy. The great importance of the protection of motherhood and infancy in the Soviet health system and the still insufficiently broad scope of work of Gosmedizdat prompted the People's Commissariat of Health in 1924 to establish a special publishing house to serve the work of okhmatmlada. This publishing house, which merged into Gosmedizdat in 1929, published scientific and departmental, as well as popular and periodic literature. The output of the publishing house in scientific M. l. is not large, this is for the most part small books with an average size of 5 printed sheets on special issues: pediatrics, pedagogy, obstetrics, gynecology, methodology of okhmatmlada, etc. Table 7. Output of scientific literature of okhmatmlada. Years | titles JA-S- Prints (in thousands) 11)26........ 1927 . . . . ... 11? 1929 ... .... Publishing House 'Scientific Thought'. As stated above, the publishing house 'Scientific Thought' is one of the first medical publishing houses that arose after the revolution. 'Scientific Thought' was formed as the publishing house of the Society of Physicians as early as 1918, however, it was only formally established in 1922 and until 1927 existed as a partnership, 51% of the shares of which belonged to the NKZdr of the Ukrainian SSR, and then as a joint-stock company it has existed only since 1927. 'Scientific Thought' carried out particularly significant work in creating the periodic press (journals 'Medical Affairs', 'Preventive Medicine', etc.), and also published quite a lot of mass literature. In the field of publishing scientific books, the activity of 'Scientific Thought' is small. Among the larger publications of 'Scientific Thought', the following should be mentioned: 'Achievements and problems of modern medicine', edited by V. Kogan-Yasny and D. Pletnev (Kh., 1928), 'Clinic of malignant tumors', edited by N. Petrov and M. Livshits (Kh., 1930), and others. Since 1927, 'Scientific Thought' began to publish many books (especially mass ones) in Ukrainian, and the percentage of books in Russian is decreasing from year to year and 'Scientific Thought' is gradually turning into a purely Ukrainian publishing house, and in 1931 it was renamed the State Medical Publishing House of the Ukrainian SSR. Table 8. Scientific literature of 'Scientific Thought'. Years ! ^Наз".. ^A 1 _вании Sheets Years Titles Sheets 1922 . . . 1923 .. . . 1924 . . . 1925 . . . 9 5 9 22 45 53 73 1926 .... 1927 .... 192S .... 1929 .... 34 40 51 90 370 281 349 353 Private medical publishing houses. The publication of M. l. during the NEP years was carried out by many private publishers, whose output in scientific M. l. is expressed in the following figures: Table ». Years Titles of Author's Sheets of Prints (in thousands) - - 13 38 S9 307 4 865 1 134 6 216 1 371 5 831 1 155 5 831 3 675 Despite the overall rather significant output of all private publishing houses together, as stated above, only the publishing house 'Practical Medicine' developed truly significant activity.

The 'Practical Medicine' publishing house existed for about 40 years. Before the revolution, the publishing house issued over 1,099 medical works, mainly translations from German. Special mention should be made of the publication of the 'Real Encyclopedia of Medical Sciences', edited by A. Eilenburg and M. Afanasyev (21 volumes, St. Petersburg, 1891-98), as well as the 'Real Encyclopedia of Practical Medicine', edited by A. Eilenburg (7 volumes, St. Petersburg, 1909-15). After the revolution, the publishing house resumed its activities in 1923. 'Practical Medicine' published only periodic and non-periodical scientific medical literature, and the main part of its output consists of large books printed as separate sheets in the form of the journal 'Practical Medicine' and at the end of the year bound into volumes and issued as separate publications. This method of distribution, supported by a very energetic agency, ensured the publications of 'Practical Medicine' circulation in fairly large editions. The main part of the output of 'Practical Medicine' even after the revolution continued to be translated works, and in most cases the translations were careless, poorly edited editions. However, along with translations, 'Practical Medicine' also published a number of very valuable original works, of which should be mentioned: 'Doctrine of Microorganisms', edited by S. Zlatogorov (L., 1924-1925); Okintchits L. 'Gynecological Clinic' (L., 1925-26); Maslov M. 'Foundations of the Doctrine of the Child'; Khol'tsov B. 'Specialized Urology' (L., 1927); 'Small Encyclopedia of Practical Medicine', in 6 volumes, edited by V. Osipov (L., 1927-30); Breitman M. 'Dictionary of Clinical Terminology' (L., 1926-29), and others. Table 10. Scientific medical literature published by 'Practical Medicine'. Years Number of titles Author's sheets Impressions (in thousands) 1923 ........ It 1924...... . 57 0 2 860 1927 . . . . ... 99 . 5 380 3 527 1 985 Russian medical periodical press. Since the appearance of the first medical journal 'St. Petersburg Medical Gazette' (November 2, 1792), about 140 years have passed. The aforementioned journal ended its existence on July 4, 1794 and despite being published with great love and containing very interesting material, it had only 173 subscribers. Only 14 years after this, in 1808, the 'Medico-Physical Journal' appeared in Moscow, representing the works of the Society for the Competition of Medical and Physical Sciences. A total of 3 parts were published, the last of which - in 1821. Approximately at the same time, from 1811 to 1816, the Medico-Chirurgical Academy in St. Petersburg published the 'General Journal of Medical Science'. Finally, from 1823, the 'Military Medical Journal' began to be published by the medical department of the Ministry of War in St. Petersburg, which lasted until the revolution and closed only in 1917. In general, however, the development of medical periodical press in the first half of the 19th century proceeded extremely slowly (Table 11) and only from the 1860s did an upswing begin, which particularly intensified from the 1890s. During the war and revolution, the number of journals sharply decreased, however, in order to experience a new flourishing immediately after the elimination of intervention. By 1930, there was rather an excess of the number of medical journals than their shortage, and therefore Biomedgiz, after carrying out great work to regulate the medical periodical press, reduced their number, at the same time enlarging the journals and improving their quality. At present, all major medical specialties have their own central printed organ. Table 11. Emergence of medical journals by year (according to Zhbankov). Years Number Years Number 1792-1800 1801-1810 1811-1820 1821-1830 1831-1840 1841-1850 1851-1860 1 1 1 ! 6 1861-1870 1871-1830 1881-1890 1891-1900 1901-1910 1911-5 920 1921-1930 13 20 47 62 52 112 221 However, of all medical journals only 17 survived their 25th anniversary and only 3 - the Military Medical Journal, Scientific Notes of Kazan University, and Medical Supplements to the Naval Collection and their continuation 'Naval Doctor' - lived to their fiftieth anniversary. It is very difficult to establish the total number of medical journals that were published, since the very belonging of a given periodical publication to journals can often be disputed. Nevertheless, it can be stated with considerable accuracy that their number approached 700. Of these journals, scientific, practical and popular - 480, official and departmental - 167, scientific-popular and mass - 38. As before, the main mass of journals is and was published in the capitals. Place of publication of medical journals: Moscow - 183, Leningrad - 177, Kharkov - 40, Kiev - 19, other cities - 254, abroad - 14.

I Venereology and dermatology, see Soviet Journal of Venereology and Dermatology. Vienna Clinic, St. Petersburg, 1875-1881. Herald of Pharmaceutical Labor, Moscow, 1914-1920. Herald of Balneology and Climatology, Kharkov. 1910-1911. Herald of the Bashkir People's Commissariat of Health, Ufa, 1923-1924. Herald of Hydrotherapy and Russian Mineral Waters, see Herald of Russian Balneology and Climatology. Herald of Military Medical-Sanitary Organization, Moscow, 1917. Herald of Homeopathic Medicine, Kharkov-Kharkov, 1910-1913. Herald of State Dentistry, P., 1921. Herald of Mental Illnesses, St. Petersburg, 1904-1905. Herald of Natural Sciences and Medicine, Moscow, 1823-1831. Herald of Railway Paramedics, Moscow, 1918. Herald of Railway Medicine and Sanitation, St. Petersburg, 1912-1917. Herald of Health Care of Kirgizia (Kazakhstan), Orenburg, 1924-1927 (in 1923-1924 - Herald of Health Care of the Orenburg Provincial Health Department). Herald of Health Care of the Lower Volga Region, see Medical Thought.

Venerology and dermatology, see Soviet Journal of Venereology and Dermatology. Vienna Clinic, St. Petersburg, 1875-1881. Herald of Pharmaceutical Labor, Moscow, 1914-1920. Herald of Balneology and Climatology, Kharkov. 1910-1911. Herald of the Bashkir People's Commissariat of Health, Ufa, 1923-1924. Herald of Hydrotherapy and Russian Mineral Waters, see Herald of Russian Balneology and Climatology. Herald of Military Medical-Sanitary Organization, Moscow, 1917. Herald of Homeopathic Medicine, Kharkov-Kharkov, 1910-1913. Herald of State Dentistry, P., 1921. Herald of Mental Illnesses, St. Petersburg, 1904-1905. Herald of Natural Sciences and Medicine, Moscow, 1823-1831. Herald of Railway Paramedics, Moscow, 1918. Herald of Railway Medicine and Sanitation, St. Petersburg, 1912-1917. Herald of Health Care of Kirgizia (Kazakhstan), Orenburg, 1924-1927 (in 1923-1924 - Herald of Health Care of the Orenburg Provincial Health Department). Herald of Health Care of the Lower Volga Region, see Medical Thought.

Bulletin of the Health Department of Orenburg Governorate, see Bulletin of Health of Kirgizia (Kazakhstan). Bulletin of Dental Science and Technology, Moscow, 1894. Bulletin of Dentistry, Moscow, 1922. Bulletin of Clinical and Forensic Psychiatry and Neuropathology, St. Petersburg, 1883-1899. Bulletin of Resorts and Medical Institutions, Kharkov, 1908-1913. Bulletin of the Health Department of Kursk Governorate, Kursk, 1920-1922. Bulletin of Medicine, Odessa, 1911. Bulletin of Medicine, Kharkov, 1896-1897. Bulletin of Microbiology, Parasitology and Epidemiology, Saratov, from 1930 (in 1922-1929 - Bulletin of Microbiology and Epidemiology). Bulletin of Microbiology and Epidemiology, see Bulletin of Microbiology, Parasitology and Epidemiology. Bulletin of the People's Commissariat of Health of Georgia, see Soviet Medicine. Bulletin of the Newest Medical Methods, St. Petersburg, 1861-1862 (in 1860-1861 - Medical Gazette). Bulletin of the Red Cross Society on the Wounded and Sick Warriors, see News of the Red Cross Society. Bulletin of the Public Struggle with Tuberculosis, see Tuberculosis. Bulletin¹ of Public Hygiene, Forensic and Practical Medicine, St. Petersburg-Petrograd, 1889-1917 (in 1865-1871 - Archive of Forensic Medicine and Public Hygiene; in 1872-1881 - Collection of Works on Forensic Medicine, Forensic Psychiatry, Medical Police, Public Hygiene, Epidemiology, Medical Geography and Medical Statistics; in 1882-1888 - Bulletin of Forensic Medicine and Public Hygiene). Bulletin of Odontology, Moscow, 1912-1914. Bulletin of the Health Department of Omsk Governorate, Omsk, 1923. Bulletin of the Health Department of the City of Odessa, Odessa, 1920. Bulletin of Ophthalmology, Kiev, 1884-1902, Moscow, 1903-1917. Bulletin of Protection of Motherhood and Childhood, Kharkov, 1922. Bulletin of the St. Petersburg Medical Mutual Aid Society, St. Petersburg, 1902. Bulletin on Therapy of Tuberculosis, Moscow, 1911-1914. Bulletin of Psychology, Criminal Anthropology and Hypnotism, see Bulletin of Psychology, Criminal Anthropology. Bulletin of Psychology, Criminal Anthropology, St. Petersburg, 1904-1917 (in 1904-1912 - Bulletin of Psychology, Criminal Anthropology and Hypnotism). Bulletin of Radiology and Radiology, Leningrad, from 1920. Bulletin of Rhino-Laryngo-Otiatry, Rostov-on-Don, 1925-1934. Bulletin of the Russian Red Cross Society, St. Petersburg, 1880-1906. Bulletin of Russian Balneology and Climatology, St. Petersburg, from 1882 (in 1881 - Bulletin of Hydrotherapy and Russian Mineral Waters). Bulletin of Smolensk Health Care, Smolensk, 1922-1924. Bulletin of Soviet Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, see Archive of Soviet Oto-Rhino-Laryngology. Bulletin of Modern Medicine, see Soviet Doctor. Bulletin of Social Dentistry, Moscow, 1919. Bulletin of Social Insurance, Moscow, 1918-1924. Bulletin of Social Insurance of Transcaucasia, Tiflis, 1924-1925. Bulletin of Social Insurance and Labor Protection, Kiev, 1922. Bulletin of Social Insurance and Labor Protection, Saratov, 1918. Bulletin of Forensic Medicine and Public Hygiene, see Bulletin of Public Hygiene, Forensic and Practical Medicine. Bulletin of Theoretical and Clinical Medicine, Kiev, 1919. Bulletin of Tropical Medicine of the Georgian SSR, Tiflis, from 1928 (in the Georgian language). Bulletin of the Health Department of Ufa Governorate, Ufa, 1922. Bulletin of Ear, Throat and Nose Diseases, St. Petersburg-Petrograd, 1909-1918. Bulletin of Pharmacy, see Soviet Pharmacy. Bulletin of Surgery, Moscow, 1900-1902. Bulletin of Surgery named after Grekov, Leningrad, from 1936 (in 1922-1935 - Bulletin of Surgery and Borderland Fields). Bulletin of Surgery and Borderland Fields, see Bulletin of Surgery. Bulletin of the Tsarskoye Selo District, Petrograd, 1915-1916 (journal devoted to issues of treatment, evacuation and care of wounded warriors). Bulletin of Endocrinology, Moscow, from 1925. Bulletin of the People's Commissariat of Health, Kharkov, 1925-1926. Bulletin of the Ukrainian Red Cross Society, Kharkov, from 1924 (in 1922 - Bulletin of the C.K. Red Cross of the Ukrainian SSR; in 1923 - Bulletin of the C.K. Red Cross of the Ukrainian SSR). Bulletin of the C.K. Red Cross of the Ukrainian SSR, see Bulletin of the Ukrainian Red Cross Society. Military Medical Journal, Krasnodar, 1920-1921. Military Medical Journal, St. Petersburg-Petrograd, 1823-1917. Military Medical Journal, Leningrad, 1903-1933. Military Sanitary Affairs, St. Petersburg-Petrograd-Moscow, 1881-1918 and from 1929 (in 1924-1928 - Military Sanitary Collection). Military Sanitary Collection, see Military Sanitary Affairs. Questions of Defectology, Moscow, 1928-1931. Questions of Health Care, see On the Front of Health Care. Questions of Health Care of the Middle Volga Region, Samara, 1928. Questions of the Study and Education of Personality, Leningrad, 1920-1932. Questions of Motherhood and Infancy, Moscow, from 1936 (in 1925-1932 - Protection of Motherhood and Infancy, in 1933-1935 - Nurseries). Questions of Scientific Medicine, Moscow, 1913-1914. Questions of Neuropsychiatric Medicine, Kiev, 1896-1905. Questions of Oncology, Kharkov, 1928-1931. Questions of Pediatrics and Protection of Motherhood and Childhood, Leningrad, from 1929. Questions of Nutrition, Leningrad, from 1927. Questions of Prevention, Nikolaev, 1925. Questions of Psychiatry and Neurology, Moscow, 1912-1914. Questions of Social Security, 1921-1922; again 1926-1930. Questions of Insurance, St. Petersburg, 1913-1918; Moscow, from 1923. Questions of Trachoma, Kazan, from 1933. Questions of Tuberculosis, see Problems of Tuberculosis. Voronezh Health Care, Voronezh, 1923-1927. Doctor, see Russian Doctor. Homeopathic Doctor, St. Petersburg, 1891-1915. Medical Gazette, see Bulletin of the Newest Medical Methods and Soviet Medical Journal. Medical Life, Moscow, 1917. Medical Thought, Saratov, 1930-1931 (in 1928-1930 - Bulletin of Health of the Lower Volga Region; merged with the Clinical Journal of Saratov University, 1926-1930, and Medical Review of the Lower Volga, Astrakhan, 1924-1930, published in 1922 under the name - Astrakhan Medical Bulletin and in 1922-1923 - Astrakhan Medical Journal). Medical Practice, Moscow, 1929 (in 1885-1917 and in 1923-1928 - Practical Medicine, St. Petersburg-Petrograd-Leningrad). Medical Chronicle of the City of Simferopol, Simferopol, 1911-1914. Medical Chronicle of Kharkov Governorate, Kharkov, 1897-1916. Medical Chronicle of Kherson Governorate, Kherson, 1892-1917. Medical Affairs, Kharkov, from 1918. Medical Review, Berlin, 1921-1928. Medical Review, St. Petersburg, 1909. Medical and Sanitary and Veterinary Chronicle of the City of Tashkent, Tashkent, 1911-1913. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Astrakhan, Astrakhan, 1916. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Bessarabia Governorate, Kishinev, 1892-1913. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Vitebsk Governorate, Vitebsk, 1906-1915. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Vladikavkaz, Vladikavkaz, 1911-1917. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Vladimir Governorate, Vladimir, 1895-1914. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Volyn Governorate, Zhitomir, 1909-1916. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Voronezh Governorate, Voronezh, 1887-1918. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of the Vyatka Provincial Health Department, Vyatka, 1924-1925. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of the City of Irkutsk (News of the Irkutsk City Duma), Irkutsk, 1810- Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of the City of Moscow, Moscow, 1901-1920. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of the City of Odessa, see Information on the Medical and Sanitary Organization and Epidemic Diseases of the City of Odessa. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of the City of Omsk, Omsk, 1906-1916. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of the City of Samara, Samara, 1912-1914. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of the City of Ufa, Ufa, 1914- Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Yekaterinoslav Governorate, Yekaterinoslav, 1898-1917. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Yeniseysk Governorate, Krasnoyarsk, 1916-1917. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Irkutsk Governorate, Irkutsk, 1915-1917. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Kiev Governorate, Kiev, 1907-1916. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Kursk Governorate, see Monthly Information on the Spread of Infectious Diseases in Kursk Governorate. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Mirgorod District Zemstvo, Mirgorod, 1915-1917. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Novgorod Zemstvo, Novgorod, 1904-1908. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Olonets Governorate, Petrozavodsk, 1912. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Orenburg Governorate, Orenburg, 1915-1917. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Penza Governorate, Penza, 1913-1916. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Perm Governorate, Perm, 1908-1917. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Podolsk Governorate, Kamianets-Podilskyi, 1907-1915. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Pyatigorsk, Pyatigorsk, 1911-1915. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Saratov Governorate, see Saratov Sanitary Review. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of the Congress of Baku Oil Industrialists, Baku, 1912-1917. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Tavria Governorate, Simferopol, 1893-1896; 1919-1916. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Tambov Governorate, Tambov, 1906-1914 (in 1891-1901 - Leaflet on Infectious Diseases of Tambov Governorate; 1902-1905 - Sanitary Review of Tambov Governorate). Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Tomsk, Tomsk, 1906-1916. Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Tula Governorate, Tula, 1918 (in 1905-1918 - Information on the Incidence of Acute Infectious Diseases and the Activities of Epidemic Personnel in Tula Governorate). Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Ufa Governorate, Ufa, 1909-1917 (in 1897-1902 - Information on Infectious Diseases and Medical and Sanitary Activities in Ufa Governorate). Medical and Sanitary Chronicle of Chernigov Governorate, Chernigov, 1916-1918. Medical and Sanitary News of the Red Cross Administration of the Southwestern Front, Kiev, 1916-1917. Medical and Sanitary Information on Tver Governorate, see Information on the Course of Infectious Diseases in Tver Governorate. Medical and Sanitary Bulletin (Union of Cities), see

Archive of City Hygiene and Technology. Medical-sanitary review of the Vladivostok City Administration, Vladivostok, 1910-1916. Medical-sanitary review of the Vologda Province, Vologda, 1902-1916. Medical-sanitary review of the Kostroma Province, Kostroma, 1904-1915. Medical-sanitary review of the Poltava Province, Poltava, 1917. Medical-sanitary review of the Ryazan Province, Ryazan, 1903-1918. Medical-sanitary review of the Yaroslavl Province, Yaroslavl, 1903-1905; 1913-1917. Medical-sanitary department of the Bulletin of the Krasnoyarsk City Administration, Krasnoyarsk, 1915-1918. Medical-pharmaceutical review, St. Petersburg-Petrograd, 1909-1914. Medical-chemical-pharmaceutical news, Petrograd, 1916-1917. Medical bulletins, see Russian Medicine. Medical notes, Moscow, 1894-1899. Medical notes, Moscow, 1927-1929. Medical bulletin of the Vologda Province Department of Health, Vologda, 1921-1922. Medical bulletin, St. Petersburg, 1904-1912 (in 1898-1903 - Therapeutic bulletin). Medical journal, Leningrad, 1922. All-Russian Medical Bulletin, Moscow, 1911-1912. All-Russian Pharmaceutical Bulletin, Kiev, 1912-1913. All-Russian Pharmaceutical Bulletin, see Soviet Pharmacy. All-Russian Pharmaceutical Intermediary, Moscow, 1906-1907. Vyatka Medical Journal, Vyatka, 1920. German Dental Journal, Berlin, 1924. Hygiene, St. Petersburg, 1859. Hygiene, safety and pathology of labor, see Hygiene of Labor and Technical Safety. Hygiene and safety of labor, see Hygiene of Labor and Technical Safety. Hygiene and sanitation, St. Petersburg, 1910-1913. Hygiene and sanitation, Moscow, 1933 and from 1936. Hygiene and sanitation of transport, Leningrad, 1923-1924. Hygiene and sanitary affairs, Petrograd, 1914-1917. Hygiene and socialist healthcare, Moscow, 1932. Hygiene and epidemiology, Moscow, 1922-1931. Hygiene of nutrition, Leningrad, from 1927. Hygiene of labor, see Hygiene of Labor and Technical Safety. Hygiene of labor and technical safety, Moscow, from 1935 (in 1923-1929 - Hygiene of labor; in 1929-1931 - Hygiene, safety and pathology of labor; in 1933-1935 - Hygiene and safety of labor). Gynecology and obstetrics, see Obstetrics and Gynecology. Voice of the Doctor, Moscow, 1915. Voice of Proletarian Medicine, Lipetsk, 1918. Voice of the Pharmacist, Arkhangelsk, 1906. Homoeopathic Bulletin, St. Petersburg, 1883-1890. Homoeopathic Review, Petrograd, 1914-1915. Gorky Medical Journal, Gorky, 1932 (from issue 11)-1935 (in 1932 until issues 9-10 it was called Nizhny Novgorod Medical Journal). Dermatology, Moscow, 1913-1914. Children's Medicine, Moscow, 1896-1905. Doctor's Diary, Ryazan, 1881-1882. Diary of the Kazan Society of Physicians, see Kazan Medical Journal. Dnepropetrovsk Medical Journal, Dnepropetrovsk, 1927-1929 (in 1922-1925 - Yekaterinoslav Medical Journal). Doctor, see News of Therapy. Home Doctor, St. Petersburg, 1869-1901. Home Doctor, Moscow, 1900-1904. Home Physician, St. Petersburg-Petrograd, 1907-1917. Druggist, St. Petersburg, 1894-1895. Friend of the Patient, Moscow, 1910. Friend of Health, St. Petersburg, 1833-1869. Jewish Medical Voice, Odessa, 1908-1916. Monthly Bulletin of Epidemic Diseases in the Samara Province, Samara, 1909-1918. Monthly Bulletin of the Medical-sanitary Bureau of Kazan, Kazan, 1913. Monthly Bulletin of the Petrograd City Sanitary Commission, Petrograd, 1915. Monthly Bulletin of Ear, Throat and Nose Diseases, see Archive of Soviet Otorhinolaryngology. Monthly Information on the Spread of Infectious Diseases in the Kursk Province, Kursk, 1885-1897; 1918-1919 (in 1904-1906 - Medical-sanitary Chronicle of the Kursk Province). Weekly Clinical Gazette, see S.P. Botkin's Hospital Gazette. Weekly Journal for Practicing Physicians, Paris, 1912-1914. Weekly Journal of Practical Medicine, see Soviet Medical Journal. Weekly Bulletin of the Moscow Department of Health, see Bulletin of the Department of Health of the Moscow Soviet of R.S.F.S.R. and Workers' Deputies. Weekly Review of the Medical Library, St. Petersburg, 1885. Experimental Medicine, Kharkov, from 1934. Life of the Pharmacist, Kiev, 1901-1910; Petrograd-Leningrad, 1912-1918. Journal of Obstetrics and Women's Diseases, see Obstetrics and Gynecology. Journal of Medical and Natural Sciences, see Notes on Medical Sciences. Journal of Homoeopathic Treatment, St. Petersburg, 1861-1865. Journal of Dermatology and Syphilology, St. Petersburg, 1901-1902. Journal of Children's Diseases, Leningrad, 1925. Journal for Normal and Pathological Histology, Pharmacology and Clinical Medicine, St. Petersburg, 1870-1877. Journal for the Improvement of Physicians, Leningrad, 1923-1929. Journal of Dental and Prosthetic Technology, Moscow, 1910. Journal of the Kazan Medical-Anthropological Society, Kazan, 1921. Journal of Medical Chemistry and Organotherapy, St. Petersburg, 1900-1913 (in 1892-1893 - Journal of Medical Chemistry and Pharmacy). Journal of Medical Chemistry and Pharmacy, see Journal of Medical Chemistry and Organotherapy. Journal of Medicine and Hygiene, Kharkov, 1894. Journal of Microbiology, Petrograd, 1914-1917. Journal of Microbiology and Immunobiology, see Journal of Microbiology, Immunobiology and Epidemiology. Journal of Microbiology, Immunobiology and Epidemiology, Moscow, from 1935 (after the merger of Journal of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Moscow, 1930-1934, and Journal of Epidemiology and Microbiology, Moscow, 1932-1934). Journal of Microbiology, Pathology and Infectious Diseases, Moscow, 1924-1929. Journal of the Scientific Chemical-Pharmaceutical Institute, Petrograd, 1921. Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry, see Soviet Neurology, Psychiatry and Psychohygiene. Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry named after S.S. Korsakov, see Soviet Neurology, Psychiatry and Psychohygiene. Journal of the Society of Russian Physicians in memory of Pirogov, see Public Health. Journal of Odontology and Stomatology, see Soviet Stomatology. Journal on the Study of Early Childhood, see Pediatrics. Journal on Early Childhood, see Pediatrics. Journal of Psychology, Neurology and Psychiatry, Moscow, 1922-1924. Journal of the Russian Doctor, Berlin, 1920-1921. Journal of the Russian Society for the Protection of Public Health, St. Petersburg, 1891-1913 (in 1884-1890 - Proceedings of the Society for the Protection of Public Health). Journal of Modern Surgery, Moscow-Leningrad, 1926-1931. Journal of the St. Petersburg Society of Homoeopathic Physicians, St. Petersburg, 1872-1876. Journal of Theoretical and Practical Medicine, Baku, in 1924-1930 (in 1923 - Archive of Theoretical and Practical Medicine). Journal of Ear, Nose and Throat Diseases, Kharkov, from 1924. Journal of Experimental Biology and Medicine, Moscow, 1925-1930. Journal of Experimental Medicine, Moscow, 1928-1930. Journal of Epidemiology and Microbiology, see Journal of Microbiology, Immunobiology and Epidemiology. Notes on Medical Sciences, St. Petersburg, 1842-1849 (in 1840-1842 - Journal of Medical and Natural Sciences). Notes of the Medical Council of Shadrinsk Zemstvo, Kazan, 1875-1876. Notes of the Yekaterinoslav Medical Society, Yekaterinoslav, 1893-1899 and 1902. Notes of the Odesa Scientific Society of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, Medical Section, Odessa, from 1929. Notes on Medical Sciences, see Journal of Medical and Natural Sciences. Notes of the Russian Balneological Society, Pyatigorsk, 1866-1870 and 1898-1912. Notes of the St. Petersburg Medico-Chirurgical Academy, St. Petersburg, 1849. Notes of the Terek Medical Society, Vladikavkaz, 1891-1900. Notes of the Ural Medical Society, Yekaterinburg, 1891-1911. For Socialist Healthcare, Moscow, 1931 (from issue 9)-1933 (in 1921-1931 until issues 7-8 - Moscow Medical Journal). For Socialist Healthcare of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, from 1931 (in 1922-1925 - Turkestan Medical Journal; in 1926 - Central Asian Medical Journal; in 1927-1931 - Medical Thought of Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan). Healthcare, see Socialist Healthcare. Healthcare in Kazakhstan, Alma-Ata, 1929-1931. Healthcare in the Urals, Sverdlovsk, from 1932. Healthcare of the Middle Volga Region, Samara, from 1928. Healthcare of Tajikistan, Stalinabad, 1933. Healthcare of the Central Black Earth Region, Voronezh, 1930-1933. Zemstvo Medicine, Moscow, 1885-1888. Zemstvo Doctor, Chernigov, 1888-1894. Dental Practice, Moscow, 1906-1910. Dental News, Riga, 1910-1914. Dental Bulletin, St. Petersburg, 1878-1917. Dental Monthly, Odessa, 1913-1916. Dental Monthly Journal, St. Petersburg, 1892-1898. Dental Journal of Asha, Moscow, 1912-1913. Dental World, Moscow, 1909-1911. Dental Intermediary, Odessa, 1913. Dental Collection, Moscow, 1894-1900. Dentistry, Kharkov, 1920. Dental Prosthetics Worker, Moscow, from 1929 (in 1930 - Dental Prosthetics Technician). Dental Prosthetics Technician, see Dental Prosthetics Worker. News of the Azerbaijan University, Baku, 1923-1930 (in 1921-1922 - News of the Baku University). News of the Baku University, see News of the Azerbaijan University. News of the Military Medical Academy, St. Petersburg-Petrograd, 1900-1917. News of Physicians... of the Army, Riga, 1917. News of the All-Russian Union of Cities for Aid to the Sick and Wounded Soldiers, Moscow, 1914-1918. News of the All-Russian Union of Regimental Orderlies, Petrograd, 1917. News of the Main Committee of the All-Russian Zemstvo Union, Moscow, 1914-1917. News of the Don State University, see News of the North Caucasus University. News of the Kyiv X-ray Commission, Kyiv, 1915-1917. News of the Commissariat of Health of the Petrograd Labor Commune, Moscow, 1919-1922 (in 1918-1919 - News of the Commissariat of Health of the Union of Communes of the Northern Region). News of the Commissariat of Health of the Union of Communes of the Northern Region, see News of the Commissariat of Health of the Petrograd Labor Commune.

Reports of the Committee of the Western Front of the All-Russian Union of Cities, Gomel-Minsk, 1916-1918. Reports of the Committee of the Western Front of the Zemstvo Union, Minsk, 1917. Reports of the Moscow Provincial Committee of the All-Russian Zemstvo Union, M., 1914-1917. Reports of the Moscow Provincial Union of Paramedics, Midwives, and Midwives, M., 1918. Reports of the Moscow City Duma, Medical-Sanitary Department, M., 1903-1911. Reports of the People's Commissariat of Health. M., 1918-1925 (in 1918, nos. 1-6-Reports of Soviet Medicine). Reports of the People's Commissariat of Health of the Azerbaijan SSR, Baku, 1921. Reports of the People's Commissariat of Health of Ukraine, Kiev-Kharkov, 1919-1924. Reports of the Nikolaev University, see Scientific Notes of the Saratov University named after Chernyshevsky. Reports of the Astrakhan Society of Physicians, Astrakhan, 1908-1914. Reports of the Society of Physicians of the South-Ussuri Krai, Vladivostok, from 1922. Reports of the Red Cross Society, P., 1917-1918 (in 1870-1917-Red Cross Society Bulletin on the Wounded and Sick Warriors). Reports of the Society for the Protection of the Health of the Jewish Population, P., 1917-1919. Reports of the Orenburg Society of Physician Assistants, Orenburg, 1917. Reports of the Oryol Provincial Department of Health, Orel, 1921 (in 1918-Bulletin of the Oryol Department of Health). Reports of the Department of the Nizhny Novgorod Provincial Executive Committee of the Soviet of R. K. and K. D., N.-Novgorod, 1918. Reports of the Petrograd Provincial Health Department, P., 1919. Reports of the Samara Provincial Sanitary Bureau, Samara, 1893-1917. Reports of the Samara University, Samara, 1918-1923. Reports of the Saratov University, see Scientific Notes of the Saratov University named after Chernyshevsky. Reports of the North-Caucasus University, Rostov-on-Don, from 1926 (in 1921-1925-Reports of the Don State University). Reports of Soviet Medicine, see Reports of the People's Commissariat of Health. Reports of the Taurida University, Simferopol, 1919-1920. Reports of the Tomsk University, Tomsk, from 1889. Reports of the Ural University, Yekaterinburg, 1921-1922. Reports of the Pharmaceutical Department of the Health Commissariat of the SFSR, P., 1919. Information Bulletin, M. (Moscow Health Department), from 1927. Irkutsk Medical Journal, Irkutsk, 1923-1929. Caucasian Resorts, Pyatigorsk, 1912-1914. Kazan Medical Journal, Kazan, 1901, 1914 and from 1921 (in 1872-1901-Kazan Society of Physicians' Diary). Kaluga Sanitary Review, Kaluga, 1907-1918. Kiev Medical Life, Kiev, 1925. Kiev Medical Journal, Kiev, 1922-1924 (from 1925-1930-in Ukrainian). Kiev Medical Worker, Kiev, 1922. Clinical Medicine, M., from 1920. Clinical Archive of Genius and Talent, L., from 1925. Clinical Journal, M., 1899-1901. Clinical Journal of the Saratov University, see Bulletin of Health of the Lower Volga Region. Red Medical Worker, M., 1924-1927. Crimea, M., 1925-1929. Crimean Resorts, Simferopol, 1913. Kuban Medical-Sanitary Review, Krasnodar, 1919-1920. Kuban Scientific-Medical Bulletin, Krasnodar, 1921-1930. Resort Chronicle, M., 1922. Resort Affairs, see Resortology and Physiotherapy. Resort-Sanitary Affairs, see Resortology and Physiotherapy. Resortology and Physiotherapy, M., from 1933 (in 1923-1928-Resort Affairs; in 1929-1931-Resort-Sanitary Affairs; in 1932-Resorts, Physiotherapy and Workers' Rest; the latter name after the merger of Resort Affairs with Physiotherapy, M., 1926-1931). Resorts and Health Resorts in Russia and Abroad, M., 1909-1914. Resorts, Physiotherapy and Workers' Rest, see Resortology and Physiotherapy. Laboratory Practice, M., 1913-1914 and 1925-1935. Medical Assistant, Voronezh, 1906-1908; Moscow, 1918. Leningrad Medical Journal, see Socialist Healthcare. Chronicle of Russian Surgery, see Velyaminov Surgical Archive. Chronicle of the Surgical Society in Moscow, M., 1875-1877 and 1896-1918 (in 1878-1879-Protocols of Meetings of the Surgical Society; in 1891-1895-Surgical Chronicle). Chronicle of the Yuryev University, Yuryev, 1906-1918. Healer, SPB, 1913. Medical Affairs in Russia and Abroad, Moscow, 1916-1917. Bulletin of Infectious Diseases of the Tambov Province, see Medical-Sanitary Chronicle of the Tambov Province. Medico-Biological Journal, M.-L., 1925-1930. Medico-Pedagogical Herald, SPB, 1885-1886. Medico-Sanitary Herald, Samara, 1921-1922. Medico-Sanitary Collection, Odessa, 1918. Medico-Statistical Reports, SPB, 1838-1850; SPB, 1888-1890. Medico-Pharmaceutical Journal and Southern Medical Worker, Odessa, 1923. Medico-Physical Journal, M., 1808-1821. Medicine, M., 1926-1931. Medicine, SPB, 1889-1899. Medical Conversation, see Physician's Assistant. Medical Bibliography, M., 1922-1923. Medical Library, SPB, 1881-1885. Medical Gazette, M., 1922. Medical and Biological Press, M., 1931-1934. Medical Book, M., 1928-1929. Med. Monograph, SPB, 1859-1860. Medical Thought, Rostov-on-Don, 1922-1930. Med. Thought of Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, see For Socialist Healthcare of Uzbekistan. Med. Week, M., 1914. Medical Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, M., from 1932 (in 1923-1929-Russian Journal of Tropical Medicine; in 1930-1931-Tropical Medicine and Veterinary Medicine). Med. Conversations, Voronezh, 1923. Med. News, SPB, 1865-1866; 1884-1885. Med. Supplements to the Marine Collection, see Marine Physician. Med. Archive, Simferopol, 1923-1925. Med. Herald, SPB, 1862-1886. Med. Herald, Feodosia, 1862-1886. Med. Herald of the Western Front, Smolensk, 1921-1922. Med. Herald of Crimea, Simferopol, 1922. Med. Herald of the Society of Physicians of the Central Hospital of the Chinese-Eastern Railway, Harbin, 1924. Med. Fortnight, Paris, 1878-1914. Medical Journal of Armenia, Yerevan, from 1930. Med. Journal of the Viatka Scientific Council, Viatka, 1920-1921. Med. Journal of Dr. Oks, see Popular Literary-Medical Journal of Dr. Oks. Med. Journal of the Transbaikal Society of Physicians, Chita, 1922-1924. Med. Journal (Abstract) of the People's Commissariat of Health, M., 1921-1923. Med. Journal of the Stavropol Medical Committee, Stavropol, 1922. Med. Museum, M., 1859-1860. Med. Paris, Paris, 1913-1914. Med. Worker, M., 1919-1933. Med. Collection, see Med. Collection published by the Caucasian Medical Society. Med. Collection of the Warsaw Ujazdowski Military Hospital, Warsaw, 1887-1912. Med. Collection of Railway Physicians of Transcaucasia, Tiflis, 1923-1924. Med. Collection published by the Caucasian Medical Society, Tiflis, 1891-1905 (in 1866-1890-Medical Collection). Med. Contemporary, SPB-P., 1911-1917. Med. Index, M., 1882-1900; SPB, 1907. Med. Affairs, Vilna, 1910. Medical Review of the Lower Volga, see Medical Thought. Med. Review of Primorye; M., 1874-1918. International Clinic, SPB, 1882-1890. International Medicine, SPB, 1908. Microbiological Journal, L., 1925-1931. Mineral Waters, Pyatigorsk, 1895. Minsk Medical Reports, Minsk, 1910-1915. Munich Bulletin on Infectious Diseases in the Ukrainian People's Republic, Kharkov, from 1926. Marine Physician, SPB, 1911-1917 (in 1861-1911-Med. Supplements to the Marine Collection). Moscow Medical Gazette, M., 1858-1878. Moscow University Reports, see Scientific Notes of Moscow University. Moscow Medical Herald, M., 1873-1876. Moscow Medical Journal, M., 1847-1859. Moscow Medical Journal, see For Socialist Healthcare. On the Red Cross Post, M., 1927 (in 1923-1927-Red Cross Society Bulletin). People's Health, SPB, 1899-1903. People's Health (of the Karelian Department of Health), Petrozavodsk, 1921-1923. On Guard of Health, Health Department of the Moscow-Baltic Railway, M., from 1926. Scientific Medicine, P., 1919-1923. Scientific Courses for the Improvement of Physicians, SPB, 1910-1914. On the Front of Health, M., 1930-1935 (in 1922-1927-Narkomzdrav Bulletin; 1927-1929-Health Issues). Neurological Notes, Baku, from 1923 (in 1921-1922-Annals of the Clinic of Nervous and Mental Diseases). Neurological Herald, Kazan, 1893-1918. Neurology, Kharkov, 1919. Neuropathology, Psychiatry and Psychohygiene, see Soviet Neuropathology, Psychiatry and Psychohygiene. Nizhny Novgorod Medical Journal, see Gorky Medical Journal. Nizhny Novgorod Health Collection, N.-Novgorod, 1925-1928. New Surgery, M., 1925-1931. New in Medicine, Kiev, 1923. New in Medicine, SPB, 1904-1918. News of Foreign Medicine and Biology, Paris, 1927 (in 1924-1926-News of French Medicine and Biology). News of Medicine, M., 1911. News of Therapy, M., 1886-1897 (in 1881-1885-Doctor). News of Therapy, SPB, 1913-1914. News of French Medicine and Biology, see News of Foreign Medicine and Biology. New Surgical Archive, Dnepropetrovsk, from 1921. Review of Psychiatry, Neurology and Reflexology, L., 1926-1930 (1896-1916-Review of Psychiatry, Neurology and Experimental Psychology). Review of Psychiatry, Neurology and Experimental Psychology, see Review of Psychiatry, Neurology and Reflexology. Review of French Medicine, Paris, 1910-1914. Public Health Review, SPB, 1896-1897; M., 1899-1914. Public Physician, M., 1908-1919, 1922 (in 1895-1908-Journal of the Society of Russian Physicians in memory of Pirogov!). Odessa Medical Journal, Odessa, 1927-1930 (in 1926-Southern Medical Journal).

Odontology, Kharkov, 1924; 1927-1930. Odontology and dentistry, see Soviet Dentistry. Odontological Review, Moscow, 1899-1915. Olonetskaya Feldsher, Petrozavodsk, 1918. Omsk Medical Journal, Omsk, 1926-1929. Orthopedics and Traumatology, Kharkov, from 1927. Pharmacist's Responses, St. Petersburg, 1906. Official Collection of the People's Commissariat of Health, Moscow, from 1935 (1930-1935-On the Health Front, official section). Health Protection, Petrograd, 1920. Health Protection of Children and Adolescents, see Pediatrics. Protection of Motherhood and Infancy, see Questions of Motherhood and Infancy. Protection of Motherhood and Infancy, Petrograd, 1916-1917; 1925. Protection of Motherhood and Infancy, Saratov, 1923. Labor Protection, Moscow, 1925-1933. Pediatrics, Moscow, from 1935 (in 1934-Soviet Pediatrics) after the merger of Health Protection of Children and Adolescents, 1931-1932 (in 1911-1914 and 1924-1930-Pediatrics), and the Journal on Early Danish Age, 1932-1933 (in 1922-1931-Journal on the Study of Early Childhood Age). Penza Health Bulletin, Penza, 1925. Perm Medical Journal, Perm, 1923-1933. Perm Epidemic Leaflet, Perm, 1886. Assistant to the Physician, Voronezh, 1906-1908 (in 1887-1905-Medical Conversation). Popular Literary-Medical Journal of Dr. Oks, St. Petersburg, 1906-1916 (in 1898-1905-Dr. Oks's Medical Journal). Practical Medicine, see Medical Practice. Practicing Physician, St. Petersburg, 1902-1917, Berlin, 1923-1927. Practical Dentistry, Petrograd, 1911-1916. Problems of Tuberculosis, Moscow, from 1936 (in 1923-1931-Questions of Tuberculosis, in 1932-1935-Struggle with Tuberculosis). Problems of Endocrinology, Moscow, from 1936. Industry and Health, St. Petersburg, 1902-1904. Proceedings of the Council of Moscow University, see Scientific Notes of Moscow University. Proceedings of the Meetings of the Surgical Society, see Chronicle of the Surgical Society in Moscow. Professional Hygiene and Pathology, Moscow, 1928-1931. Prevention, Leningrad, 1927. Prevention and Medical Affairs, Samara, 1929-1930. Preventive Medicine, Kharkov, from 1922 (from 1929 in Ukrainian language-Preventive Medicine). Preventive Chronicle of the Stalin District, Stalino, 1925. Psychiatric Newspaper, St. Petersburg, 1914-1918. Psychiatry, Neurology and Experimental Psychology, Petrograd, 1928. Psychoneurological Bulletin, Moscow, 1917. Psychoneurological Journal, Omsk, 1926. Psychotherapy, Moscow, 1910-1914. X-Ray Bulletin, Odessa, 1907-1909. Abstract Biological Journal, Moscow, from 1933. Prescription, St. Petersburg, 1902-1909. Russian Clinic, see Soviet Clinic. Russian Medicine, St. Petersburg, 1883-1895 (in 1876-1883-Medical Bulletins). Russian Otolaryngology, see Archive of Soviet Otorhinolaryngology. Russian Anthropological Journal, Moscow, 1900-1918 and from 1922. Russian Archive of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, see Archive of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology. Russian Archive of Pathology, Clinical Medicine and Bacteriology, St. Petersburg, 1896-1902. Russian Archive of Protistology, Moscow, 1924-1929 (in 1922-1924-Archive of the Russian Protistological Society). Russian Bulletin of Dermatology and Venereal Diseases, Kharkov, 1901-1916. Russian Journal of Tropical Medicine, see Medical Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases. Russian Resort, Moscow, 1925. Russian Medical Bulletin, St. Petersburg, 1898-1905. Russian Ophthalmological Journal, see Soviet Bulletin of Ophthalmology. Russian Seasonal Leaflet, Kerch, 1889-1899. Russian Pharmacist, Moscow, 1908-1910. Russian Physiological Journal named after Sechenov, see Physiological Journal of the USSR named after I. M. Sechenov. Russian Surgical Archive, see Surgical Archive of Vyalyaminov. Russian Surgical Review, Moscow, 1903-1906. Russian-German Medical Journal, Moscow-Berlin, 1925-1928. Rybinsk Medical Collection, Rybinsk, 1922. Ryazan Medical Journal, Ryazan, 1926 (discontinued, instead of issue 4-Ryazan Medical Review). Ryazan Medical Review, see Ryazan Medical Journal. Sanitary Engineering, Moscow, from 1925. Sanitary Chronicle of the Health Department of the Moscow Soviet of R. K. and K. D., Moscow, 1918. Sanitary Chronicle of the Petrograd Provincial Zemstvo, Petrograd, 1909-1918. Sanitary Affairs, St. Petersburg, 1890-1893. Sanitary Education, Moscow, 1924. Sanitary Education in Turkestan, Tashkent, 1921. Sanitary Education of the Western Front, Smolensk, 1920-1921. Sanitary Education on the Caucasian Front, Rostov-on-Don, 1921. Sanitary-Statistical Bulletin, Vitebsk, from 1924. Sanitary-Statistical Bulletin of the NKZ of the Ukrainian SSR, Kharkov, 1924. Sanitary-Entomological Bulletin, Kharkov, 1923 (supplement to Preventive Medicine). Sanitary Bulletin of the City of Yalta, Yalta, 1914. Sanitary Bulletin of the 7th Army, 1917. Sanitary Review of the Tambov Province, see Medical-Sanitary Chronicle of the Tambov Province. St. Petersburg Medical Bulletins, St. Petersburg, 1792-1794. Saratov Health Bulletin, see Health Bulletin of the Lower Volga Region. Saratov Sanitary Review, Saratov, 1903-1917 (in 1891-1895-Medical-Sanitary Chronicle of the Saratov Province). Health Collection, Kazan, from 1925. Collection of Information on Homeopathy, Moscow, 1850-1860. Collection of Works on Forensic Medicine, Forensic Psychiatry, Medical Police, Public Hygiene, Epidemiology, Medical Geography and Medical Statistics, see Bulletin of Public Hygiene, Forensic and Practical Medicine. Information of the Medical-Sanitary Department of the City of Penza, Penza, 1912-1917. Information on the Medical-Sanitary Organization of the Stavropol Province, Stavropol, 1915-1916. Information on the Zemstvo Sanitary-Medical Organization of the Moscow Province, Moscow, 1882-1918. Information of the Medical-Sanitary Bureau in Baku, Baku, 1907-1917. Information of the Medical-Sanitary Bureau of the Nizhny Novgorod Province, Nizhny Novgorod, 1898-1915. Information on the Medical-Sanitary Organization of the City of Yekaterinodar, Yekaterinodar, 1906-1913. Information on the Medical-Sanitary Organization of the City of Odessa, see Information on the Medical-Sanitary Organization and Epidemic Diseases of the City of Odessa. Information on the Medical-Sanitary Organization of the City of Sevastopol, Sevastopol, 1908-1911. Information on the Medical-Sanitary Organization and Epidemic Diseases of the City of Odessa, Odessa, 1897-1917 (in 1889-1893-Medical-Sanitary Chronicle of the City of Odessa; in 1895-Information on the Medical-Sanitary Organization of the City of Odessa). Information on the Medical-Sanitary Organization of Nizhny Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod, 1902-1917. Information on the Incidence of Infectious Diseases and Activities of the Epidemic Personnel of the Tula Province, see Medical-Sanitary Chronicle of the Tula Province. Information on the Activities of the Sanitary Organization and Epidemic Diseases of the City of Kharkov, Kharkov, 1901-1916. Information on Infectious Diseases and Medical Activities in the Ufa Province, see Medical-Sanitary Chronicle of the Ufa Province. Information on Infectious Diseases and Activities of Medical Organizations of the Smolensk Province, Smolensk, 1892-1917. Information on Infectious Diseases, on the State of Medical-Sanitary Affairs of the Simbirsk Province, Simbirsk, 1913-. Information on the Sanitary-Medical Organization of the City of Yalta, Yalta, 1902-1903; 1911-1912. Information on the Sanitary-Statistical Bureau of the Arkhangelsk City Administration, Arkhangelsk, 1912-1915. Information on the Course of Infectious Diseases in the Tver Province, Tver, 1901-1905 (in 1898-1901-Medical-Sanitary Information on the Tver Province). North Medical Journal, Ivanovo-Voznesensk, 1927. Seasonal Health Leaflet, Moscow, 1900. Seasonal Leaflet of the Kemerovo Mineral Waters, Riga, 1891. Seasonal Leaflet of Russian Mineral Waters (St. Petersburg, 1884-1885). Seasonal Leaflet of Slavic Mineral Waters, Slavyansk, 1889-1898. Siberian Medical Gazette, Irkutsk, 1908-1914. Siberian Medical Bulletins, Krasnoyarsk, 1902-1907. Siberian Archive of Theoretical and Practical Medicine, Tomsk, 1926-1929. Siberian Physician, Tomsk, 1913-1917. Siberian Clinical-Preventive Journal, Novosibirsk, 1930. Siberian Medical Journal, Novosibirsk, 1922-1932, 1935. Siberian Medical Journal, Tomsk, 1922-1923. Siberian Medical Review, Krasnoyarsk, 1918-1919. Pharmacist Employee, St. Petersburg, 1907. Soviet Medical Gazette, see Soviet Medical Journal. Soviet Dermatology, Gorky, 1934-1935. Soviet Clinic, Moscow, from 1931 (in 1924-1930-Russian Clinic). Soviet Medicine, Tiflis, 1929 (in 1922-1928-Bulletin of the People's Commissariat of Health of Georgia). Soviet Medicine in the North Caucasus, Rostov-on-Don, 1925-1932 (in 1922-1924-Southeastern Health Bulletin). Soviet Neuropathology, Psychiatry and Psychohygiene, Moscow, 1932-1935 (in 1901-1931-Journal of Neuropathology named after S. S. Korsakov; 1931-1932-Journal of Neuropathology and Psychiatry; in 1932-Neuropathology, Psychiatry and Psychohygiene). Soviet Psychoneurology, Kharkov, 1932-1933. Soviet Psychotechnology, Moscow, 1932-1934. Soviet Dentistry, Moscow, from 1931 (in 1923-1926-Journal of Odontology and Dentistry; in 1927-1930-Odontology and Dentistry). Soviet Pharmacy, Moscow, 1930-1935 (1924-1930-Pharmacy Bulletin, merged with the Chemical-Pharmaceutical Journal, Moscow, 1923). Soviet Surgery, Moscow, from 1931.

Soviet Journal of Venereology and Dermatology, Moscow, from 1931 (after the merger of Venereology and Dermatology, 1924-1930, and Russian Journal of Dermatology, 1924-1930). Soviet Journal of Otolaryngology, Moscow-Leningrad, from 1936 (in 1907-1923-Monthly Journal of Ear, Throat and Nose Diseases; in 1924-1926-Russian Otolaryngology). Soviet Journal of Ophthalmology, Moscow, from 1932 (after the merger of Russian Ophthalmological Journal, 1922-1931, and Archive of Ophthalmology, 1925-1931). Soviet Journal of Pharmacy, Moscow, 1930-1935 (in 1923-1930-Chemico-Pharmaceutical Journal, merged in 1930 with Journal of Pharmacy, 1924-1930). Soviet Physician, Moscow, 1930-1932 (in 1924-1929-Journal of Modern Medicine). Soviet Medical Journal, Leningrad, from 1936 (in 1894-1901-Weekly Journal of Practical Medicine; in 1902-1919 and 1922-1931-Medical Gazette; in 1932-1935-Soviet Medical Gazette). Soviet Genetic Journal, Moscow-Leningrad, from 1936. Soviet Healthcare of Turkmenia, Ashkhabad, from 1934. Soviet Dentistry, Moscow, 1932-1933. Modern Clinic, St. Petersburg, 1893-1894; Kharkov, 1895-1896. Modern Clinic, see Modern Clinic and Therapy. Modern Clinic and Therapy, St. Petersburg, 1905-1917 (in 1902-1904-Modern Clinic). Modern Medicine, Kiev, Warsaw, 1860-1880. Modern Medicine, Odessa, 1921-1924. Modern Medicine and Hygiene, St. Petersburg, 1896-1919. Modern Psychiatry, Moscow, 1907-1917. Modern Psychoneurology, Kiev, 1925-1931. Modern Therapy, Moscow, 1896-1905. Modern Medical Practitioner, St. Petersburg, 1874-1875. Socialist Healthcare, Leningrad, 1931-1932 (in 1925-1927-Leningrad Medical Journal; in 1928-1930-Healthcare). Socialist Healthcare of Siberia, Novosibirsk, from 1935. Social Hygiene, Moscow, 1922-1930. Information Bulletin of the Russian Union of Psychiatrists and Neuropathologists, Moscow, 1912. Information Bulletin of the Staro-Russky Mineral Waters, Novgorod, 1881-1883. Health Companion, St. Petersburg, 1898-1905. Central Asian Medical Journal, see For the Socialist Healthcare of Uzbekistan. Stavropol Medical Journal, Stavropol, 1918. Forensic Medical Expertise, Moscow, 1925-1931. Tana Medicine, Tiflis, from 1929 (in Georgian¹ language). Theory and Practice of Physical Culture, Moscow, 1926-1931. Therapeutic Archive, Moscow, from 1923. Therapeutic Monthly, Warsaw, 1910-1914. Therapeutic Journal, Moscow, 1837-1844. Therapeutic Review, Odessa, 1908-1915. Therapy, St. Petersburg, 1904-1906. Tropical Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, see Medical Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases. Works of the Pharmacist, Moscow, 1907-1909. Works of the Society for the Protection of Public Health, see Journal of the Russian Society for the Protection of Public Health. Tuberculosis, St. Petersburg-Petrograd, 1911-1918. Tuberculosis, published by the League to Combat Tuberculosis, Moscow, 1911-1913, 1915-1917 (in 1914-Journal of the Public Fight Against Tuberculosis). Turkestan Medical Journal, see For the Socialist Healthcare of Uzbekistan. Ukrainian Journal of Reflexology and Experimental Pedagogy, Kharkov, 1925-1930. Ukrainian Journal of Blood Groups and Transfusion, Kharkov, from 1932 (in 1927-1931-Bulletin of the Permanent Commission for the Study of Blood Groups). Ukrainian Medical Archive, Kharkov, 1927-1932. Ukrainian Medical Journal, Kiev, 1925-1931. Ukrainian Ophthalmological Journal, Kharkov, from 1929. Ural Physician, Yekaterinburg, 1922. Ural Medical Journal, Sverdlovsk, 1928-1931. Ural Medical Review, Yekaterinburg, 1922-1924. Urology, Moscow, from 1923. Advances in Modern Biology, Moscow, from 1932. Scientific Notes of Moscow University, Moscow, 1833-1864 and 1880-1916 (in 1872-1880-Protocols of Meetings of the Moscow University Council). Scientific Notes of Chernyshevsky Saratov University, Saratov, 1925 (in 1910-1916-News of the Nikolayevsky University; in 1917-News of Saratov University). Scientific Notes of Yuryev University, Yuryev, 1893-1917. Pharmacist, see Pharmacist-Practitioner. Pharmacist-Practitioner, Moscow, 1907-1917 (in 1893-1906-Pharmacist).

_ Pharmaceutical Herald, Irkutsk, 1919. Pharmaceutical Herald, M., 1897-1906. Pharmaceutical Herald, SPB, 1891-1916. Pharmaceutical Journal, SPB, 1864-1866; 1879-1917. Pharmaceutical Journal, Kharkov, 1928-1933. Pharmaceutical Labor, M., 1907-1908. Pharmaceutical Review, P., 1916. Feldsher, M., 1891-1917. Feldsher, M., from 1936. Feldsher Life, Simbirsk, 1913. Feldsher Thought, Rostov-on-Don, 1913-1914. Feldsher Herald, M., 1906-1918. Feldsher Review, Yakutsk, 1917. Physiotherapy Herald, Odessa, 1904. Physiological Journal of the USSR named after I. M. Sechenov, L., from 1932 (1917-1931-Russian Physiological Journal named after Sechenov). Physiotherapy, see Kurortology and Physiotherapy. Physical Culture in Scientific and Practical Treatment, L., 1924-1929. Physical Culture and Sports, M., from 1928. Kharkov Medical Journal, Kharkov, 1906-1917. Chemist and Pharmacist, SPB, 1908-1914. Chemical-Pharmaceutical Herald, Odessa, 1926-1927. Chemical-Pharmaceutical Journal, see Soviet Herald of Pharmacy. Chemical-Pharmaceutical Review, Berlin, 1922. Surgical Chronicle, see Chronicle of the Surgical Society in Moscow. Velyaminov Surgical Archive, SPB-P., 1910-1917 (in 1885-1894-Surgical Herald; in 1895-Russian Surgical Archive; in 1896-1901-Chronicle of Russian Surgery; in 1902-1909-Russian Surgical Archive). Surgical Herald, see Velyaminov Surgical Archive. Surgery, M., 1897-1914. Chronicle of Public Health, Kharkov, from 1926. Central Abstract Medical Journal, M., from 1935 (1928-1935-Central Medical Journal). Chervony Krest, Kharkov, from 1926 (in 1922-1925-Bulletin of the Ukrainian Red Cross). Epidemiological Bulletin, Saratov, from 1929-1930. Epidemiological Leaflet, SPB, 1870-1871. Aesculapius, SPB, 1910. Echo Kurortnoye, Pyatigorsk, 1906-1916. South-Eastern Health Herald, see Soviet Medicine in the North Caucasus. South Russian Medical Gazette, Odessa, 1892-1897. Southern Medical Journal, see Odessa Medical Worker. Southern Medical Worker, Odessa, 1923. Southern Pharmacist, Kiev, 1908. Southern Pharmaceutical Agent, Odessa, 1914. Yasli, see Questions of Motherhood and Infancy. Popular journals. Library of Healthy Life, SPB, 1912. Be Healthy, SPB, 1894-1912. Health and Economy Bulletin, SPB, 1912. Health Herald, Kazan, 1921. Health Herald, SPB, 1910-1915. Herald of Public Health, P., 1915. To the Sanitary Aid Worker, M., 1927. Hygiene and Health of the Working and Peasant Family, L., from 1928. Hygiene and Beauty, M., 1909. Life and Health, SPB, 1908-1909. Zhitte and Znanie, Poltava, 1913-1914. For a Healthy Way of Life, M., from 1928. For a Healthy Kolkhoz, M., from 1930-1931 (in 1926-1930-Healthy Village). For a New Way of Life, M., from 1925. For Sanitary Defense, M., 1930. Healthy Village, see For a Healthy Kolkhoz. Healthy Life, SPB, 1911. Health, SPB, 1874-1885, 1882, 1913. Health, SPB, 1900-1901. Health of the Village, Smolensk, 1920. Health for All, Tomsk, 1917. Health and Enlightenment, Kiev, 1922. Health of the Red Army Man, M., 1921. Health of the Transport Worker, Yekaterinoslav, 1924-1925. Health of the Northerner, M., from 1926. Health of the Family, SPB, 1902-1917. Healthy Way of Life, Khabarovsk, from 1929. Red Sanitation, Army, 1919. Medicine for All, M., 1907-1908. Medical Worker, M., from 1919-1935. People's Good, M., 1898. Accessible Medical and Hygiene Library, SPB, 1898. Common Cause, Kiev, 1923. Popular Medicine, SPB, 1860-1862. Popular Literary-Medical Journal of Dr. Okean, SPB, 1898-1913. Path to Health, SPB, 1910-1911. Path to Health, Kharkov, from 1925. Rails of Health, Khabarovsk, 1926. Rails of Health, Kharkov, 1926. Care for Beauty (journal of hygiene and cosmetics), M., 1907. Folia (popular scientific journal on herbal medicine). SPB, 1913. Shlyakh do zdorovya, Kharkov, 1925-1934. 0. BeimCepr. III. Popular medical literature. Popular medical literature has as its main task the popularization of medical-sanitary knowledge and measures and the propaganda of the resolutions of the party and government in the field of public health. By arming the working masses with medical knowledge, popular medical literature aims to involve them in the ranks of active and conscious fighters for health. The forms of popular medical literature are diverse: book, popular magazine, newspaper, leaflet, slogan. History of the development of popular medical literature before the revolution. Already Peter I ordered the translation of medical books into Russian, among which were popular ones, and he himself wrote instructions to troops on how to prevent disease. In the military and especially naval regulations, there are a number of instructions on how to maintain health. In various calendars of that time, there was a section on public health, which gave, for example, instructions on what to eat and how to prepare food in advance, how to provide first aid, in which months and to what extent to "let blood" etc. Hygienic propaganda developed more significantly during the reign of Catherine II. Brochures of this period were intended for both "scholars" and "good landlords concerned about preserving their own health and that of their subjects" ["On the health of scholars", works by G. Tissot (trans. from German) and others; F. Barsuk-Moiseev-"Path to Health, or the science of preserving one's health, prescribed both for urban residents and for people of all conditions and good landlords concerned about preserving their own health and that of their subjects"]. Brochures on health protection were also intended for the "common people" and "people of all conditions", for example Tissot (trans. N. Ozersky) "Instruction to the people, regarding their health", 1781, SPB; Peter Bogdanovich "Rules for preserving health", 1788-1702, SPB. The main theme of literature of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century is the fight against infectious diseases (plague, rabies, cold fevers, bloody diarrhea, etc.)- [Dr. Gunn, "A few words to citizens and peasants about the benefit of cowpox vaccination by Dr. Gunn, who distributes 20,000 copies of this work free of charge", M., 1807 (and others); A. Poly, "Brief description of cholera, instruction on how to treat this disease, what measures need to be taken during its raging, and instruction for the people on how to protect themselves from it", 1830; "Instruction to the residents of the Kazan province on how to protect themselves from cholera and how to deal with those afflicted with this disease, compiled in the general meeting of the doctors present in the city of Kazan", 1830]. A significant part of the brochures is devoted to the vaccination of Catherine II and Paul Petrovich. For example: "Word on the day of the celebration of the successful vaccination of Empress Catherine II, delivered in the Assumption Cathedral by Archpriest Alexander Levshin", 1768, M. The popularity of popular literature on the fight against infectious diseases is explained by the significant development of these diseases, which often took on an epidemic character. Marx points out that "the fear of the bourgeoisie of infectious diseases" gave rise to a whole series of sanitary acts, surveys, etc., aimed at creating a certain safety for the bourgeoisie in relation to the development and spread of infectious diseases. "The capitalist gentlemen cannot with impunity allow themselves the pleasure of dooming the working class to epidemic diseases; the consequences fall on themselves" (Engels). The extremely high mortality of infants could not but cause in the second half of the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries the appearance of a large number of brochures on the protection of maternal and child health, both translated from German (for example Johann Horn, "The Midwife or reliable instruction through questions and answers on how a woman, blessed with fruit, should assist in childbirth and warn her in advance of severe attacks"; Lichtensteydt, "On the causes of high mortality in the first year of life and measures to reduce it") and original Russian authors (Nechaev, "On ways to prevent the mortality of infants in the first year of their life in the peasant way of life", Kazan, 1837). Considerable attention is paid to the propaganda of natural feeding and the harm of artificial feeding. Some brochures deal with the hygiene of pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period. Issues of protecting the health of children and youth occupy a significant place at the end of the 18th century and in the first half of the 19th century (brochures number in the dozens), for example "Instruction to fathers and mothers on the physical and moral upbringing of children". Literature on sports and gymnastics, mainly translated, predominantly French, is oriented toward the youth of the nobility. Popular literature on first aid and care for the sick becomes widespread. An example of popular literature on care for the sick is "Instruction on how one should proceed with the sick where there are no doctors, how to keep them and what food should be given to them during the continuation of the disease and during recovery from V. M. E. t. XVII. thereof" (St. Petersburg, in the medical printing house, 1813). It is worth mentioning the significant development at the end of the 18th century and in the first half of the 19th century of the publication of all sorts of domestic "medical guides". These guides popularized various methods of treating diseases and had wide sales.

Particular success was enjoyed by the medical guide by Prince Parfenii Engalychev: 'A Popular Medical Guide, Containing Treatment for Various Frequently Occurring Diseases with Home Remedies, Without the Help of a Physician, and the Most Important Instructions for Preventing Them and Preserving All Health,' medical guides by Buchan and others. For the first time in the second half of the 18th century, pamphlets dedicated to housing issues began to appear (construction of dwellings, maintenance of the latter, construction of cities, etc.). Thus, as early as 1772, Moscow University published a pamphlet by Professor Rost dedicated to Catherine II (trans. from Latin), 'A Discourse on the Harmful Air in Dwellings, Especially of the Common People, and on Means Convenient for Improving It,' and a number of others. During this period, a wide stream of literature was published on issues of sexual life and venereal diseases. For the most part, these were: 'Instructions for the Behavior of the Fairer Sex,' 'Advice to Young People of Both Sexes...', 'Discussions on Marital Duties,' 'Advice from Father to Son, Mother to Daughter, Mentor to Pupil,' etc. A significant part of the pamphlets was devoted to issues of dietetics, dental diseases, hygiene of the body and clothing, and individual ones to issues of anatomy and physiology, hygiene of vision, rheumatism, gout, hemorrhoids, and worms. Authors of popular medical literature in the 18th and early 19th centuries were Russian doctors and mainly foreign ones, who appeared in Russia in connection with the significant development of healthcare in the capitals. A significant part of the literature of this period was translated (Péquet, Eisen, Tissot, Hoffmann, etc.). The first Russian professors of the medical faculty in Moscow also participated in the popularization of medical science (E. Mukhin, 'A Conversation on the Benefits of Vaccinating with Cowpox,' M. Mudrov, 'A Brief Instruction on How to Protect Oneself from Cholera, Cure It, and Stop Its Spread' and others). The main form of popular literature during this period was the pamphlet. Some pamphlets had an advertising character for the authors. In addition, separate leaflets were published, partly written in a humorous poetic form and accompanied by appropriate illustrations (see Poster). One of the unique forms of popular medical literature was special government decrees on individual diseases, intended for mass reading in churches ('A Brief Pastoral Exhortation on Vaccination with Cowpox - printed by highest command in St. Petersburg and sent to all churches in Russia for reading to the people three times annually,' 1829). In 1831, for the first time, a special cholera newspaper was published on sheets, sometimes on quarter sheets of gray paper, under the editorship of Professor M. P. Pogodin of Moscow University. A total of 106 issues were published under the title 'News on the State of the City of Moscow 1830-31.' From the side of the clergy, there were attempts to popularize medical knowledge in the form of 'instructions,' 'methods,' 'discourses,' etc., of a religious-moral nature (Archpriest Levshin), propagating care for health by references to biblical texts and etc. ['Health, like life, is an inestimable gift of God; therefore, negligence about it is ingratitude' (priest Voskresensky)]. It is interesting to note that in literary-artistic journals of the Catherinean era, there were many popular articles on health protection issues. In the 1840s, the popular medical journal 'Friend of Health' appeared, published by Dr. Grum. Later (1850-1860s), a whole series of medical and hygienic journals began to be published: 'Popular Medicine' - a popular medical journal, ed. M. Khan (existed 3 years); 'Guardian of Health and Economy' - a popular hygienic medical journal for literate people of all classes, ed.-publ. Dr. N. Glinsky. A characteristic feature of some popular journals of this time was that, without having time to open, they immediately closed. The main reason: the lack of a mass readership and the high cost of publication. The main publishers of popular medical journals were the State Medical Collegium, philanthropic societies, private publishers, etc. As illustrations, samples of pamphlets and leaflets published by the State Medical Collegium at the end of the 18th century can be presented ('A Brief Description of Anthrax,' 'A Brief Instruction on How to Revive the Drowned,' 'A Brief Outline of Methods to Protect Oneself from Infectious Diseases' etc.). With the development of zemstvo medicine, the previously random activity in the field of sanitary education began to enter a more definite course and received new social stimuli for its development. So-called popular readings on various general educational issues became widespread, including readings on medicine and hygiene. Leaflets and pamphlets were published. Only pamphlets published and approved by a specially organized government commission were allowed for reading. The list of pamphlets permitted for popular readings contained only two pamphlets: Glinsky's 'On Apoplexy of the Brain' and 'How the Human Body is Nourished.' In 1894, at the V Congress of the Society of Russian Physicians in memory of N. I. Pirogov, the Permanent Commission for the Dissemination of Hygienic Knowledge Among the People was founded (see Pirogov Society, congresses). This commission developed quite significant activity in the field of publishing popular medical literature. The leaflet conquered a large place in the dissemination of hygienic knowledge among the people. This is explained by the fact that even that meager minimum of explanations that doctors usually gave at their outpatient appointments now, due to the increasing number of patients, was almost completely nullified. Moreover, the leaflet was the cheapest way to disseminate hygienic knowledge among the people. Data presented in the commission's report to the XI Congress indicate that in 15 years of the commission's existence, it had published 13 pamphlets and 26 leaflets with a total circulation of about 6¹/2 million copies. These commission publications, both pamphlets and leaflets, the price of which was only 40 kopecks per hundred, had quite a large circulation. Zemstvos and cities bought them by the thousands. The publishing activity of the commission reached its greatest flourishing in 1905. In just one year, up to 2,182,760 leaflets and 227,200 pamphlets were distributed. Special mention should be made of the publication of leaflet No. 13 entitled: 'What is Necessary for the Successful Fight Against Infectious Diseases,' where, along with the propaganda of hygienic knowledge, political demands were made (convocation of a constituent assembly, 8-hour working day, demands for freedom of speech, press, assembly, etc.). The propaganda of hygienic knowledge also went through political proclamations of that time. 'Health issues of the working class occupied their place among the demands put forward by the proletariat in the course of its struggle for power. The working class party put forward its demands in the field of healthcare of workers, based on the protection of the working class from physical and moral degeneration, as well as in the interests of developing its ability for the liberation struggle' (from the program of the RSDRP, adopted at the II Congress). In most cases, the popular medical literature of the 'Permanent Commission for the Dissemination of Hygienic Knowledge Among the People' reflected the general political position of the Pirogov Society, which did not go beyond the demands of the liberal bourgeoisie. The cultural work of the zemstvos was brilliantly characterized by V. Lenin as 'cultivating culture within the framework permitted by autocracy.' In addition to publishing work, the Pirogov Commission also did a great deal of work in the field of bibliographic-review work. In the early 20th century, some philanthropic societies began to develop propaganda work (league against tuberculosis, league against child mortality, etc.). In 1911, the 'white carnation day' was held for the first time in Russia, which was then repeated annually until the imperialist war. The educational activity on 'white carnation day' and in the nearest preceding and subsequent days consisted, along with the organization of public free and accessible lectures, also in the distribution of leaflets with appeals and rules for fighting tuberculosis, small pamphlets, and work in the press. All this propaganda, including medical literature, had a liberal cultural-beneficial character. For characterization, we give the titles of some chapters in one popular pamphlet: Knor, 'Tuberculosis as a National Disease and the Fight Against It,' 'What Help Can Virtuous and Conscientious Employers Provide in the Fight Against Tuberculosis' (p. 33) or 'What Help Can Rich and Well-Disposed People Provide in the Fight Against Tuberculosis Besides Establishing Sanatoriums for the Poor' (p. 56). The same character was the pamphlet 'Day of the Pink Flower' (League Against Child Mortality). Some pamphlets and leaflets were also published by local branches of philanthropic societies in national languages (Tatar, Armenian, Estonian, etc.). Individual health protection issues found their reflection in fiction (Gorky, Chekhov, etc.) and in the form of various articles published in general journals ('Niva' etc.). The beginning of the imperialist war basically destroyed almost all forms of dissemination of hygienic knowledge, except for the publication of pamphlets on first aid. Only since the October Revolution did popular medical literature receive a new, powerful, unprecedented development. 681

MEDICAL LITERATURE Development of popular medical literature after the October Revolution. The years of the Civil War are characterized by the mass production of popular medical literature. The popular medical literature of the period of war communism had a practical character in accordance with its era. It was aimed at fighting the main infections of that time - parasitic typhus, cholera, etc. Before the young proletarian state stood the most responsible problem: 'Either lice will defeat socialism or socialism must defeat lice' (Lenin). In just 1919-22, 202 titles of popular literature were published centrally with a total circulation of up to 13 million copies. Along with this, in addition to the center, there was a mass release of popular literature locally. The weak material and technical base of those years left its characteristic imprint on the literature of this period. Booklets were mostly published very poorly - on wrapping paper, often colored or rough paper, with blind printing and illustrations, without covers. During this period, the unprecedentedly widespread distribution of literature in the form of leaflets attracts attention. Literature in the form of one-day newspapers on various topics that were particularly acute at that time also began to appear. Special sanitary newspapers began to be published for the first time in large military formations ('The Ray of Front Medicine', 'The Alarm', etc.). Following the model of military sanitary newspapers, as civilian health agencies strengthened, newspapers also began to appear in the rear. It should also be noted newspapers of the type 'Sanrosta', in which the most prominent writers participated (Mayakovsky, etc.): the sanitary newspaper 'Louse', published in January 1922 by the Sanprosvet of the Moscow Health Department, circulation 10,000 copies, the newspaper 'Healthy Village' (published by the Smolensk provincial health department), etc. Printed wall newspapers on transport grew especially ('Health of the Railway Worker' - Transcaucasian railway newspaper, 'Path to Health' - Moscow-Kiev-Voronezh railway newspaper, 'Health and Labor' - Orlov-Vitebsk railway newspaper, 'Health of the Northerner' - Northern railway, etc.). During the Civil War, a special form of popular medical literature appeared in the form of a Red Army calendar and the booklet 'ABC of Health', which gave a popular exposition of basic medical concepts. In addition to newspapers, popular medical journals began to be published, such as 'People's Health' - a sanitary-educational organ of the Karelian Department of Health, etc. With the end of the Civil War, the growth of mass medical literature began. With the transition to the NEP, significant attention began to be paid to malaria and children's acute infectious diseases, the incidence of which was noted to be increasing at this time. In the restoration period, in connection with the major changes in the country's economy and the improvement of material and living conditions for workers, the subject matter of popular medical literature expanded significantly and was basically rebuilt from epidemic issues to serving the work of improving labor and living conditions. From 1923, in connection with the intensively developing anti-tuberculosis work, a significant amount of popular medical literature on tuberculosis began to be published. In total, for the period from 1921 to 1927 inclusive (excluding leaflets), 111 titles were published centrally on tuberculosis, approximately 866,000 copies. The dissemination of popular literature also played a significant role in the fight against venereal diseases. From 1917 to 1927, over 60 titles were published on venereal diseases. Questions of professional hygiene and safety began to receive broad coverage only from 1924-25 as industry was restored and new industry was developed. On topics of general, personal, and social hygiene, we have a total of 56 booklets in 10 years. More than half of these are addressed to the rural reader in response to the slogan 'face to the village.' In the first ten-year period from 1917 to 1927, 61 booklets were published on anatomy and physiology. Questions of physical culture began to receive more or less complete coverage around 1922-23 as the physical culture movement developed. For the first ten-year period, over 150 titles can be noted. Literature covering individual diseases (diseases of the oral cavity, skin, eyes, etc.), which had previously been extremely underdeveloped, occupied a significant place among the publications of the restoration period. Questions of military-sanitary order and first aid also received significant coverage. During this period, it is necessary to note the growth of artistic literature on health issues. This should include specifically medical literature (G. Dobrzinsky-Diez, 'How Arina Almost Destroyed Her Daughter and Son' and 'Lucky Trouble'; Dr. L. V. Kanel, 'How Andrei Went Blind from Trachoma'; K. Chukovsky, 'My Louse', 'Sunny', etc.) and separate artistic articles and poems published in both adult and children's journals ('I Want to Know Everything', 'Murzilka', 'Entertainer', etc.). Publishing work in the restoration period was characterized by the fact that almost every health department had a publishing section under the sanitary education subdepartment, which published various types of mass medical literature. At that time, almost all state and departmental publishing houses published it. At the same time, the demand for mass medical booklets increased so much that private publishing houses also began to engage in publishing this literature due to its high profitability. As a result, a large number of booklets appeared, the quality of which was not always high from a scientific point of view. The lack of firm control over the nature, quality, and scientific value of medical popular-scientific literature prompted the People's Commissariat of Health to insist on the centralization of the publication of mass medical literature under its direct supervision in the publishing house of the People's Commissariat of Health, which was later merged with Medgiz, which has now been renamed Biomedgiz. In the restoration period, literature in national languages also began to be published. Initially, this literature was mostly translated (from Russian), and appropriate changes were made to the translation in connection with the national characteristics of a particular republic or region. Subsequently, cadres of national authors appeared. The publication of popular medical literature for national minorities was ensured by a special publishing house - Centrizdat. Later, national sectors were organized in sectoral publishing houses. The socialist reconstruction of the entire national economy (reconstruction of industry and collectivization of agriculture), fulfillment of the five-year plan in four years, shock rates in work, new, socialist forms of labor (shock work, socialist competition), the problem of collectivization of daily life, etc., set new important tasks before sanitary-educational literature: the struggle for the industrial and financial plan, assistance to the socialist reconstruction of agriculture, mobilization of the masses around current tasks of health protection, creation of a new, collective way of life (public catering, institutions for the protection of motherhood and infancy, etc.). The resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of 1929 noted the lag of health agencies behind the pace of economic development and identified as the main task the reduction of morbidity and injuries among workers engaged in socialist construction. This resolution determined the subject matter of popular medical literature. The quantitative growth of mass literature is indicated by the following figures: from 10,000 print runs in 1928, Gosmedizdat in 1929 moved to 20,000 and 30,000 print runs, in 1930 to 50,000 and 70,000, and in 1931 100,000 print runs were already recorded. The total number of impressions of mass literature was: in 1928 - 3,200,000, in 1929 - 3,600,000, in 1930 - over 9,000,000, in 1931 - 13,000,000. In addition to booklets and leaflets, during this period popular medical journals were also published: 'Healthy Village', 'Hygiene and Health of the Working and Peasant Family', 'For a New Way of Life', 'The Path to Health', etc., and anthologies ('Strengthen the Defense' - for Red Army men and sailors, etc.). In the reconstruction period, the struggle for sanitary culture became a real matter of the broad working and laboring masses. The resolutions of the party and government concerning health protection are widely propagated in popular medical literature. The resolution of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR of 1930 on the sanitary minimum (see) was a new stage in mass sanitary-cultural work, as it clearly defined the role of the public in the struggle for sanitary culture. This caused a significant release of popular medical literature on the sanitary minimum. The main requirements for popular medical literature. The Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in its resolution on publishing work with maximum clarity indicated the main requirements for a book: 'The giant growth of the political and cultural level of workers and collective farmers, occurring on the basis of strengthening and expanding the material base of socialism, places increasingly new demands on the book in all areas of knowledge.' 'The character and content of the book must fully meet the tasks of socialist reconstruction: the book must be militant and politically relevant, it must arm the broad masses of builders of socialism with Marxist-Leninist theory and technical-production knowledge.'

The book must become the most powerful means of educating, mobilizing, and organizing the masses around the tasks of economic and cultural construction; the quality of the book must meet the constantly growing cultural demands of the masses." Our mass literature, reflecting the basic principles and guidelines of Soviet healthcare, cannot be confined to a narrow circle of medical questions; it must be linked with the tasks and interests of socialist construction as a whole. "It is necessary to re-educate the masses, and only agitation and propaganda can re-educate them; it is necessary to connect the masses with the construction of the general economic life, first and foremost. This should be the basis of the work of every agitator-propagandist, and when he grasps this, the success of his work will be assured" (Lenin, Volume XXV). One of the most important requirements for popular medical literature is its ideological consistency. The subject matter of popular literature must be current and relevant. In the struggle against socialism, attempts were made to use mass popular literature, including medical literature. The content of popular medical literature should be an explanation to the working people of the policy of socialist healthcare, the importance of sanitary culture, and questions of organizing the independent activities of workers and collective farm masses in improving working and living conditions. Popular medical literature should also acquaint readers with the latest achievements in medicine. Popular medical literature should not only focus on treatment issues, limiting itself to instructions on first aid and the simplest medical measures (cupping glasses, compresses, etc.); it should primarily focus the reader's attention on disease prevention. The most important condition for the maximum effectiveness of a book's impact on the reader is its orientation toward a specific audience (worker, collective farmer, schoolchild, etc.). Moreover, it is now basically impossible to write "in general" for a worker; one must orient toward specific groups of workers. We must strive for clarity and clarity of exposition, keeping in mind that our literature is intended for the masses. In popular medical literature, there should be no place for oversimplification or vulgarization. Vladimir Ilyich more than once drew attention to the fact that popularization is very far from popularizing, vulgarization. In 1901, Lenin wrote in an article in the journal "Svoboda": "A popular writer leads the reader to deep thought, to profound teaching, starting from the simplest and most well-known data, pointing with the help of simple reasoning or well-chosen examples the main conclusions from these data, prompting the thinking reader to further and further questions. A popular writer does not assume a reader who does not think, does not want to, or is unable to think—on the contrary, he assumes in an undeveloped reader a serious intention to work with his head and helps him do this serious and difficult work, leads him, helping him take the first steps and go further independently. A vulgar writer assumes a reader who does not think and is incapable of thinking; he does not prompt him to the first principles of serious science, but in a grotesquely simplified, salted with jokes and anecdotes form, presents him with "ready-made" all the conclusions of a known teaching, so that the reader does not even have to chew, but only swallow this porridge." Accessibility of language is a mandatory condition for mass literature. Speaking of the method of exposition, it should be noted that a successful form of exposition is a book written in the form of living speech, conversation, dialogue, "correspondence with a comrade," etc., both in its pure form and in combination with the descriptive form. It is unacceptable to present the material in a spirit of frightening the reader, which can lead to various phobias (cancerphobia, venereophobia, etc.). The book should be imbued with a lively tone, healthy optimism, and activity in the struggle for a new, healthy life. The title of the book should in general characterize its main essence. In the titles of books, one should avoid screaming, tendentious headings with an obvious calculation on attractiveness; sensational headlines are not needed by the reader. The titles of chapters and subheadings should be as clear, brief, and understandable as possible. It is highly desirable to use numerical material in mass books, but it should be given in small quantities, otherwise the numbers lose their prominence, are poorly remembered, and burden the presentation of the brochure. Drawings, diagrams, photographs, and other illustrative material and their arrangement are of great importance in a mass book. It is important that the illustration be placed on the same page where the text relating to it is located, and that it be clear and distinct. A major drawback of popular medical literature is the small, blind type. This technical defect also significantly reduces the quality of popular medical literature and makes it less accessible to the mass reader. Special attention should be paid to the presentation of health protection issues in artistic form. To this day, we have had only isolated attempts in this direction. It will become much easier to create good mass literature if the working people themselves—workers, collective farmers—take an active part in this matter. "The growth of consciousness of the working masses, the Stakhanov movement in particular, increases the demand for popular scientific literature. Meanwhile, we have extremely little popular literature written in a truly simple, concise, scientific manner, illustrating scientific principles with concrete examples. Most popular brochures are either collections of recipes, or allow scientific distortions, or are incomprehensible" (N. Krupskaya). Great importance in the struggle for the quality of literature is given to the reviewing of books by the readers themselves—workers and collective farmers—and their opinions about books. Familiarity with the critical evaluation of workers and collective farmers of the mass literature that has been published is of enormous importance for the publishing house, for the author, and for the reader themselves. A review of a book produced by the reader themselves will allow the publishing house and author to take into account the demands and requirements of workers and collective farmers and to increasingly improve the quality of their product. Of great importance for the quality of a brochure is the discussion of it in manuscript form at meetings of workers and collective farmers. The manuscript after reader criticism is usually enriched with a number of indications and comments. To increase the coefficient of sanitary-educational and sanitary-influential effect of popular medical literature on the mass reader, it is necessary to conduct special studies. The influence of popular medical literature on the reader and their interests can be studied using various methods: the questionnaire method, the method of accounting for reader responses, by studying the registration forms of readers of popular medical books, recording the reaction of the audience during loud reading, reader conferences and debates, the method of fixing reader responses on a special "feedback board," etc. The publishing of popular literature has taken on such significant dimensions in recent years that it is possible to keep track of all the popular literature being published only with the help of certain bibliographical guides. A great help in this regard is the publication of recommended lists and bibliographical guides to popular sanitary-educational literature. Reviews of popular medical literature can be found in the journal "Biology, Medicine, Physical Culture," published by the Critical-Bibliographical Scientific Research Institute of the People's Commissariat for Education, and in popular medical journals "Hygiene and Health" (Leningrad) and others. A number of instructions summarizing the experience of working with popular medical literature can be found in the books: M. Vogel, "Hygienische Volksbelehrung" (Dresden; there is an abbreviated Russian translation); L. Viborel, "La technique moderne de la propagande d'hygiene sociale" (Paris, 1930). Popular medical literature abroad. The first printed work of medical content, although intended for doctors, was the monthly calendar of bloodlettings and purgatives for 1457, which had a semi-popular character. It listed the days of the week for bloodlettings and for purgatives. This calendar caused countless imitations in German and Latin, numbering more than 200; they were printed before 1501, mostly in Germany. In the 16th and 17th centuries, a significant amount of popular literature appears, gradually increasing all the time. Let us mention at least only the "Fliegende Blatter" of the 16th century. Then follows a whole series of popular books by Tissot (1768-69). A little later we encounter the book: Chr. Wilh. Hufeland, "Die Kunst, das menschliche Leben zu verlangern" (1st ed., Vienna, 1798). The second half of the 18th century, the 19th century, and the beginning of the 20th century give a large amount of popular literature in all countries of the world. In addition, questions of health protection in the form of separate articles were placed in readers. The first attempt of this kind was the chapter "on ways to preserve health" in the book of Eberhard von Röso's "Attempt at a textbook for peasant children" (1772). A special form of popularization of hygienic knowledge was the filling of prescription blanks in French hospitals with rules and instructions regarding alcoholism. In 1848, at the request of the sanitary administration in Sheffield, the public roads administration printed sanitary prescriptions on customs receipts.

In the USA, which in terms of propaganda volume stands first compared to European countries, in most states and large cities, there exists a special propaganda department within the health departments. The main popular medical journals in America are: "Hygieia", "The Health magazine" (published by the American medical association, Chicago; a well-technically formatted and illustrated popular medical journal; contains original articles by both specialist scientists and writers); "Health digest". (published by the American Health Publishers, New York; contains articles and selections from popular medical journals of various countries); "The cleanliness journal" (New York); "Health culture"; "The journal of health and physical education" (published by the Physical Education association, Michigan; contains articles on hygiene and physical education). The distribution of leaflets, brochures, etc., is the responsibility of health departments. The scientific center for the USA is Federal public health (the federal service of public health), which mainly publishes information for the press and others, and since 1921 - radio reports. At present, on 29 broadcasting stations, three 10-minute reports are read weekly by state personnel; the content of these lectures is printed in newspapers the next day. A characteristic organization in the USA are life insurance societies. Some of them, led by the Metropolitan life insurance company, have 17,000,000 insured and as long as 15 years ago developed extensive educational and advisory activities on health protection. The wide development of publishing work is explained by the commercial benefits of the insurance society, which was interested in reducing payments for diseases and mortality. The popular newspaper published by the mentioned society had 4 million subscribers as early as 1912, and a brochure on tuberculosis was published in 10 languages. The "Metropolitan" society publishes and distributes enormous quantities of health-educational literature. Literature is distributed free of charge with the help of society employees spread across 4,000 major and smaller cities in the USA and Canada. In just one year, 1926, they distributed up to 45 million copies of literature. "Metropolitan" publishes its own health-educational journal in an edition of 5 million copies. In addition, the society publishes various health-educational calendars, posters, collections, and entire libraries of 100 or more titles. The insurance society pays much attention to health education in schools, both among schoolchildren and among all school staff; many different books and brochures on school hygiene have been published for teachers; the service staff (cleaners and doormen) are not forgotten. The book by Bullock and Winsley "Healthy land" is very widely distributed among children, depicting in a purely American style how "children become citizens of the health country by studying and fulfilling its laws." After the war, the USA developed extensive health-educational activities through the printed word in various European countries (Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, etc.). In Germany, the systematic use of the press for health education purposes was begun by the State Committee for Health Education in 1926, during the health week, when a special journal was published, the material of which was provided to all the press for free reprinting. To provide materials for the provincial press, the Committee periodically published appropriate materials in 2,000 copies, which were sent free of charge to the provincial press and health workers in the field. The leaders sought to serve press agencies and use them, as well as "family" special magazines and calendars. Along with the wide use of the press, modern European newspapers are filled with promising advertising means, often harmful to the health of those who turn to them. It is known that thousands of "quacks" (Kurpfuscher) in Germany and North America, widely and uniquely using the "freedom" of the press, publish enormous quantities of various brochures, slogans, etc., devoted to health issues, with constant advertising of their patented remedies and treatment methods known only to them. The question of the role of the press was debated at the anniversary meeting of the German Society for the Fight against Quackery in February 1928. The opinion was expressed about the need for a more critical attitude of the press toward the material being printed; it is sometimes too eager for sensations about diseases, medical successes, new remedies, etc. A major defect of a certain part of German health-educational literature is the detailed treatment of the symptomatology of some disease, its diagnosis and therapy. It is not surprising that I. Schwalbe, in the pages of "Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift" (1927, No. 1), published an article on the exaggeration of health education, where he sharply opposes this position. With the strengthening of the reaction, the publication of popular medical literature sharply decreased. The special methodological journal on health education "Hygienischer Wegweiser" was closed. The official fascist ideology, built on the biologization of social phenomena, began to assign a huge role to biological sciences in the propaganda of the fascist regime. Elevated to the rank of state doctrine, the racial theory decisively invaded all areas of state life. In the Ministry of Health, an educational department on race and population policy was created. According to the head of this department, Dr. Walter Gross, the tasks of the department he leads come down to acquainting broad circles of the population with the danger of the biological extinction of the German people and the propaganda of racial hygiene. This theme has now become the main theme in German popular medical literature. Of the German popular medical journals, the following should be noted: "Gesundheit und Erziehung" (Berlin-Dresden); contains articles on health and education issues, especially in the field of school hygiene, has a rich bibliographic review in each issue; to certain issues are appended "Praktische Gesundheitspflege", containing materials from the experience of hygienic education. Since 1933, the journal has become semi-official of the German government; it is a mouthpiece for fascist measures on racial hygiene. Health education of the population in France is predominantly the business of private organizations. The National Committee for the Fight against Tuberculosis (in Paris) is distinguished by its particularly developed activity. In 1919, the work of the latter (with the help of the Rockefeller Institute) covered 3 million people and distributed more than 3,000,000 printed works. Of great interest (methodologically) are the popular publications of the French tuberculosis and anti-alcohol league "Jeunesse", "L'Etoile bleue", "La Fraternite" and others. These journals are not at all like our health-educational publications. They are rather general press, in which a relatively small place is given to hygiene issues. In these publications, one can find political feuilletons, novels, a little chronicle, in children's journals - charades, rebuses, etc. Health-educational information is interspersed here and there in the text. The French National Committee against tuberculosis (from the report of Prof. L. Bernard) was particularly assisted by the journal "La Vie saine", which had a circulation of 10,000 copies as early as 1924. Of the modern popular medical journals, the following should be noted: "Santé pour tous", an accessible popular journal containing articles on various health issues. "Vers la santé", a journal of the Red Cross society (contains besides materials on the activities of the Red Cross popular articles and essays on various health issues with special attention to first aid; the journal is well illustrated). The publication of numerous brochures by charitable societies (Association des femmes de France and others) should be noted. In Great Britain, popular literature on health protection is widely distributed. Agitational work regarding the publication of printed material is highly valued in Holland. The official center is the "Health Council", which publishes bulletins on the sanitary condition of the population, educational publications, etc. In Italy, the leading role is played by the Hygienic Institute of Social Prevention and Assistance in Rome. The journal it publishes regularly deals with issues of health education of the population. Of the popular journals, "Illustrazione medica italiana" and "L'igiene e la vita" can be mentioned.

Mention should also be made of the activity of the Milan Society for the Prevention of Accidents, which publishes a journal devoted to safety and hygiene in industry. In Switzerland, hygiene of childhood serves as the field of activity for the 'Pro juventute' Institute in Zurich, which carries on educational work (propaganda in the press, the journal 'Pro juventute', pamphlets, books, etc.). In Austria, the executive committee of the Society for the Protection of Infant and Child Health is developing vigorous activity, which, as of July 1, 1922, has taken over the work in Austria of the American Red Cross, then the sick funds, various private organizations having visual aids at their disposal, and the American and Austrian Red Cross Youth. The latter, among other things, distributed among schoolchildren tens of thousands of copies of a brochure on dental care and publishes the 'Journal of the Red Cross Youth.' Czechoslovakia publishes a whole series of leaflets ('Air your homes' and others) with a sharp clerical tinge. As an illustration, we give the slogan: 'The sun is God's eye, from which it is a sin to hide.' In Yugoslavia, the Ministry of Health in 1920, with the help of America, organized vigorous educational activities and widely distributes brochures, leaflets, etc. In Turkey, the state and private organizations work on educating the population, especially on combating infectious diseases (syphilis, tbc, malaria). On the initiative of private individuals, educational work is carried on by the psychiatrist Professor Maschar Osman together with his assistants. Among the organizations publishing a large amount of popular literature on health protection, in addition to state health agencies and Red Cross societies, one can name special publishing houses and institutes, for example Association of infants welfare and maternity centres, London; Gesundheitsverlag, Dresden; The Cleanliness Institute, New York, as well as numerous societies for the care of the sick, children, mothers, etc. in various countries, for example The Child health organisation of America, New York, etc. Hygienic popular literature is published by insurance companies (for example Metropolitan life insurance company, New York), pedagogical, parental and other organizations (for example National congress of parents and teachers, U.S.A.). Medical popular literature, being one of the forms of sanitary propaganda in bourgeois countries, is aimed at serving the interests of the ruling class. The political significance of medical popular literature in capitalist countries lies in obscuring the class roots of these diseases, in emphasizing the moments of personal prevention in the fight against these diseases, in shifting the responsibility for the spread of diseases from the bourgeoisie to the working class ('Tuberculosis can be conquered - one only needs to want it'), in the propaganda of class peace. By propagating the fight against diseases, philanthropic societies and other organizations try to create in workers the illusion, the belief in the possibility of eradicating venereal diseases, tuberculosis, alcoholism, etc. within the framework of the capitalist system, and thereby fulfill a very specific political order of the bourgeoisie. When this is beneficial to the bourgeoisie, even positions contradicting the principles of hygiene can take on a 'scientific' form. Here one can mention, for example, the brochure by Dr. Bergmann 'Bier und Gesundheit', proving that beer is a hygienic drink, etc. (see Sanitary education).

L. Zapolnaya and L. Kanevsky.