Cemetery

CEMETERY, a plot of land set aside specifically for the burial of the deceased. Burial of the dead in the ground is one of the ancient and most widespread methods of destruction and neutralization of dead bodies using natural forces. Soil has the ability to decompose complex organic substances to their complete mineralization, oxidizing organic carbon into CO₂, nitrogen into nitric acid and its salts (saltpeter), and hydrogen into water. The indicated ability of the soil has long been utilized in agriculture in the form of organic fertilizers and in sanitary matters for the neutralization of sewage and waste on irrigation fields, scavenging fields, and other methods of biological purification. The corpses of those buried in the soil undergo similar decomposition processes. After 1 year, corpses buried in the ground lose their infectiousness, with the exception of those who died from anthrax. During the first period of corpse decomposition—putrefaction—so-called cadaveric gases are released from them, to which particularly poisonous properties were attributed in earlier times. The old literature describes several cases of poisoning of gravediggers and body snatchers when lowering them into graves and vaults. What caused such cases has not been more closely investigated. They bear a resemblance to accidents that presently occur sometimes during the descent of workers into cesspools and sewage system wells. (On gases released by corpses during putrefaction, see Corpse.) During the putrefaction of corpses in graves, the gases formed are absorbed by the soil, dissolved in soil water, diluted with soil air, and, at a proper depth of graves, are not released to the surface of the earth and do not contaminate the cemetery air. Non-volatile organic products of corpse decomposition are also absorbed by the soil, processed by it, and partly leached out by soil water. The final decomposition (mineralization) of corpses ends under the climatic conditions of Central Europe after 7-9 years, and in Northern Europe lasts up to 10 or more years. Children's corpses decompose in 4-5 years. Artificial preservation of corpses was known to very ancient peoples (Egyptians and others) and in some cases is practiced at the present time (see Embalming of a corpse). In deep antiquity, cemeteries as plots of land set aside specifically for the burial of the deceased were arranged very rarely. Slavs, Celts, and Germans committed urns with the ashes of their dead to the earth and arranged them in rows. Among ancient Christians, the dead were buried in catacombs, then in churches and churchyards (atrium). With the formation of large populated areas—cities—and the increase in the number of the dying, the necessity arose for the arrangement of cemeteries, which already existed among the Egyptians around the large cities of Memphis and Thebes and were called "necropolises," i.e., cities of the dead. In ancient Rome, there were also cemeteries, which were under the supervision of aediles. In the middle ages, isolated orders appeared prohibiting the arrangement of cemeteries inside cities, but they remained mostly unfulfilled. In the 19th century, it was prohibited to bury the dead inside cities: in France, by the burial law of June 12, 1804; in Germany (Prussia), by the General Rural Law (Das allgemeine Landrecht); in England, in 1848 by the Public Health Act and its supplement of 1875. The indicated orders partly referred only to newly opened cemeteries. A similar prohibition against allocating plots of land located inside cities and settlements for cemeteries is also found in the Russian law issued under Catherine II (Medical Police Charter) and its later supplements. The distance of cemeteries from residential buildings is determined quite differently in various states. In the USSR in cities, at least 215 m is required, in rural areas—535 m; in London—at least 190 m; in Austria—25 m; in Germany for cities—at least 6 m, for rural areas—215 m. The removal of cemeteries beyond the boundaries of populated areas was only partly caused by sanitary considerations, but predominantly by considerations of urban improvement in the sense of improving traffic, needs for new plots for construction, in the interest of quiet, and from aesthetic considerations. For a cemetery, it is necessary to choose plots with the driest, most porous soil possible (gravel, sand, and a mixture of sand with other soil types), with a low standing of groundwater, so that corpses are not moistened by them. If a settlement is located near a river, the cemetery is located downstream from the settlement to avoid possible contamination of drinking water by cemetery groundwater. Cemeteries are usually planted with trees and other vegetation, which extract the final products of corpse mineralization from the cemetery soil. The size of a cemetery plot in Germany is calculated according to the following approximate data: length of a grave for one coffin—1.94 m, width—0.85 m, and grave base—1.649 m². In addition, it is necessary to leave free areas between graves on the long sides of 0.94x1.94 m = 1.8236 m² and on the short sides of 0.94x0.85 m = 0.799 m². Consequently, for each single grave, it is necessary to allocate an area of 4.2716 m² (1.649 + 1.8236 + 0.799). For children's graves, an area approximately twice as small is required; therefore, when calculating the size of the total cemetery area, one can on average consider sufficient an area not of 4.2716 m², but of 3.27 m² per 1 deceased person. As for the depth of graves, in various states it is determined from 0.5 to 2 m, and in the USSR not less than 1.8 m. The depth of children's graves is sufficient at 1 m. In addition, a layer of earth 40 cm high and above is poured over the graves, which absorbs the residue of cadaveric gases if the latter were not fully retained by the soil. The bottom of the graves everywhere, where possible, must be at least 0.5 m from the level of the groundwater standing to avoid flooding of the corpses by the latter and slowing down their decomposition. The burial of many corpses in one so-called "mass" grave is not recommended from a sanitary point of view, because in this case the decomposition of the corpses drags on for a long time and a large amount of cadaveric gases is formed, which sometimes forge a path for themselves into residential buildings, as, for example, took place in Paris. The residents of some houses located near the "Cemetery of the Innocents" filed a complaint that the basement premises of their houses were filling with poisonous cadaveric gases. An investigation showed that the complaints were justified and that cadaveric gases were penetrating into the houses through the soil from a grave in which 1,500 corpses had been buried. Mass burial of corpses in one large grave (trench) is resorted to on battlefields and during particularly severe epidemics when there are a shortage of hands for digging single graves. Although human corpses constitute no more than 1% of all organic waste generated in cities, nevertheless, without strict sanitary regulation of burial, cemetery soil would gradually become more and more burdened with the organic substances of corpses and the products of their decomposition. Excavations of old cemeteries carried out by special commissions in various countries have shown that the soil under coffins and near them is richer in nitrogenous organic substances than the same soil far from graves. The results of an examination of Moscow cemeteries carried out in 1926 indicate significant contamination of their soil near graves with organic substances, ammoniacal, nitrous, and phosphoric acid salts. As for the groundwater in cemeteries, sometimes it turned out to be relatively clean, and in other cases bore clear signs of contamination by corpse organic substances and had a cadaveric taste and smell (French data). In bacteriological terms, cemetery waters have not been investigated. The degree of contamination of cemetery soil and water, other things being equal, depends on the duration of the stay of corpses in the ground—on the so-called cemetery period. The cemetery period must be long enough so that not only do the corpses decompose completely, but the products of their breakdown are also mineralized both in the grave and in the surrounding soil. In the USSR, the cemetery period is defined as 30 years, obviously taking into account the northern part of the USSR, where corpse decomposition proceeds slowly. The cemetery periods established abroad in some countries are insufficient: 5 years in Paris (the period is undoubtedly too short, since during the reopening of graves, yet-undestroyed corpses were found), 9-10 years in Milan, Stuttgart (the period is sufficient, but without any margin). During excavations of Moscow cemeteries in 1926, a corpse was exhumed that had been in a burial vault for 12 years and still emitted a strong putrid odor. In some corpses that had lain in the ground for up to 10 years, remnants of clothing, shrouds, rotten damp wood shavings, and straw at the headboard were preserved (Fedynsky). Along with the decrease in free plots of land near large cities, there is a tendency to shorten the 30-year cemetery period to a shorter one. Undoubtedly, this 30-year cemetery period can be regionalized by latitudes, climates, and soil structure; such regionalization must be made on the basis of objective data from scientific examinations of old cemeteries. After the expiration of the cemetery period, laws permit the reopening of old graves for the burial of new corpses.

If, however, old closed cemeteries are intended for residential buildings, this is permitted only after the expiration of two cemetery periods. Soviet legislation sets forth the following sanitary requirements for the arrangement of cemeteries: they are allocated with the permission of the city or settlement soviet, and in villages by the executive committee, in agreement with public health authorities at least 500 meters away from populated areas, markets, and bazaars. The soil of a cemetery must be dry, loose, unflooded and non-waterlogged, not threatened by landslides and cave-ins; the groundwater level at its highest standing must be 0.5 meters below the bottom of the graves and have a drainage flow in the direction opposite to populated areas and the population's water sources. The dimensions of a cemetery must be coordinated with the period of use and the mortality rate of the population. A cemetery must be divided into plots for use, with constructed roads and paths; fenced off, with plantings and necessary buildings. The operation of cemeteries is under the jurisdiction of municipal utilities, and sanitary supervision rests with the sanitary authorities. Cemeteries that are hazardous in a sanitary sense must be reorganized upon the instructions of the sanitary authorities. The area for the burial of an adult is at least 4 m², for children 2 m²; the length of the grave is 2 meters, the width 1 meter, the depth 1.5 meters, the distance between graves along the length is at least 1 meter. Mass graves and trench graves are not permitted; vaults are constructed with the special permission of the sanitary authorities. The secondary use of a burial plot is established: for dry soils, at least 20 years; for damp soils, at least 30 years. The closure of a cemetery is carried out by decree of the city or settlement soviets. The immediate use of closed cemeteries is permitted only for parks, green plantings, hayfields, and the like; for other purposes, after 20 years for dry soils and 30 years for damp soils after the closure of the cemetery. Regarding cemeteries at crematoria, see Cremation.

Khlystov. Animal cemeteries (skotomogilniki). The rational establishment and maintenance of burial grounds for animals is not only an important factor in the cycle of measures for the control and prevention of epizootics, but also plays a very serious role in protecting humans from diseases common to animals and humans. Of exceptionally prominent importance is the proper disposal of animal carcasses in anthrax (see), infection with which in humans and animals can occur not only from any part of the carcass, but also from semi-finished products and even from fully finished products (short fur coats, footwear, shaving brushes, fodder meat-and-bone meal, etc.). Hence it is clear why, prior to the publication on June 26, 1929, by the People's Commissariat of Agriculture, the People's Commissariat of Health, and the People's Commissariat of the Interior of special regulations governing the procedure for the establishment, equipment, and maintenance of animal burial grounds and the disposal of carcasses of fallen animals, government orders concerning animal burial grounds proceeded mainly along the lines of measures against anthrax. The basic veterinary law issued in 1923 (Article 12 of the Veterinary Statute) speaks only of establishing permanent veterinary supervision over animal burial grounds. A number of subsequent orders of the People's Commissariat of Agriculture of the RSFSR instructed localities to pay attention to the establishment of animal burial grounds, to the timely and thorough disposal and burial of carcasses, to the allotment of plots of land for animal burial grounds during land management and the proper maintenance of the latter, and to the putting in order of existing burial grounds; sources of funds necessary for the establishment, equipment, and maintenance of burial grounds are also indicated (the recommendation to use funds coming from self-taxation, as well as allocations from Gosstrakh for preventive measures). However, the question of animal burial grounds received full clarity and definiteness in the RSFSR only with the publication of the aforementioned regulations, in which the institutions whose duty it is to establish burial grounds and the sources of funds for the maintenance of the latter were for the first time precisely established, and detailed instructions were given regarding the procedure for establishing animal burial grounds, their equipment, maintenance, and the disposal of carcasses. According to the regulations of June 26, 1929, the establishment, equipment, and maintenance of animal burial grounds is carried out at the expense of local budget funds and belongs in urban settlements to the jurisdiction of communal (local) economy bodies, in rural areas and summer-cottage settlements to the jurisdiction of village soviets, and in large state farms, collective farms, and other similar economic organizations to the jurisdiction of the administration of these farms. The selection and allotment of land plots for animal burial grounds is carried out by the respective economic bodies in agreement with local veterinary supervision bodies and sanitary bodies of the People's Commissariat of Health; at the same time, if the allotment of a land plot is connected with the withdrawal of lands from their legitimate users, such withdrawal is carried out on the basis of the regulation on the withdrawal of lands for state or public needs (Sobranie Uzakoneniy 1929, no. 24, p. 248). Regarding the location of animal burial grounds, the regulations require that they be established on a flat, elevated place, away from busy roads, far from pastures, swamps, rivers and ponds, wells and watering places, and not closer than 500 m from the built-up parts of a populated locality; the soil of the plot allotted for the animal burial ground must be as dry, loose as possible, providing sufficient access to air and drying quickly after rain; there must be no runoff to neighboring plots, as well as into rivers, streams, ravines. Existing animal burial grounds that do not meet the listed requirements are subject to closure. The size of the area of the animal burial ground for a given populated locality is established based on the norm of 8 m² of area for each carcass and a 2-meter distance between graves, assuming at the same time that the annual number of carcasses subject to burial will be 5% of the existing number of animals in a given point (according to the Ukrainian instruction, the area necessary for animal burial grounds is calculated on the basis of 225 m² per 100 heads of cattle and horses). When calculating the size of the area, in addition to the specified norms, it is necessary to take into account that the regulations require: 1) that a special grave be dug for each carcass; 2) that secondary burial of carcasses in old graves is not allowed, and 3) that in case of filling of the burial ground, it must be closed, and the area that it occupied can be used exclusively for tree plantings, and only after 20 years, after prior inspection and conclusion of the veterinary supervision and sanitary bodies of the People's Commissariat of Health, for construction. In large cities with a population of over 100,000, the establishment of several, and in small adjacent settlements, the establishment of one common animal burial ground is permitted. In order to prevent the access of animals to the burial ground, it must be ditched with a trench 1-1.5 m wide and 1 m deep, surrounded by a rampart 1 m high and enclosed by a sturdy fence with gates. In rural areas, however, it is permitted to fence the animal burial ground only with an earthen rampart and trench. In large cities with a population of over 100,000, premises must be available at animal burial grounds: 1) for the watchman, 2) for storing a cart and sleigh for transporting carcasses, and 3) for storing economic inventory. For the delivery of carcasses at each animal burial ground, there must be special, liquid-impermeable, galvanized iron-lined, kept-clean sledges (sleds), which cannot be used for any other purposes, and after each use must be subjected to thorough disinfection with subsequent storage closed for protection against flies. Carcasses of large animals must be buried to a depth of at least 2 m, and small animals to a depth of at least 1.5 m, and provided that the bottom of the grave at the highest standing of groundwater rises above their level by at least 0.5 m. Economic bodies under whose jurisdiction animal burial grounds are located are granted the right when disposing of carcasses to charge a fee, but only for services for disposal, transportation, and burial of carcasses and moreover according to a rate approved by the city (settlement) soviet or district (city, volost) executive committee. The transportation and burial of non-infectious carcasses at the burial ground may, subject to established sanitary rules, be carried out by citizens themselves. The removal of hides is permitted only from non-infectious carcasses and only at those animal burial grounds at which there are specially adapted premises with the necessary equipment. Supervision of the animal burial ground rests with the veterinary and sanitary supervision of the People's Commissariat of Agriculture and the sanitary bodies of the People's Commissariat of Health; in localities where such supervision cannot be carried out by veterinary and sanitary supervision bodies, it is entrusted to police bodies. The bodies under whose jurisdiction animal burial grounds are located, in addition to constant protection of them from destruction and access of animals to them, as well as in addition to maintenance in proper order, must annually in early spring subject them to dressing with the filling in of sunken graves with earth and the repair of the trench and rampart. Finally, the regulations do not permit the mowing of grass and grazing of animals on either new, old, or closed burial grounds. In other parts of the Union, the procedure for the establishment and maintenance of animal burial grounds is regulated by instructions issued by the People's Commissariat of Agriculture in furtherance of the Veterinary Statute or local mandatory resolutions. [In Ukraine, such an instruction ("On the establishment and maintenance of animal burial grounds in all populated places of the Ukrainian SSR and on the proper burial of carcasses") has been in effect since the end of 1927.]

S. Pavlushkov.